A SYLLABUS OF A COURSE IN 

THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL 
ADMINISTRATION 



STRAYER AND EVENDEN 



Syllabus of a Course in 

THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL 
ADMINISTRATION 

By 
GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER 

Professor of Educational Administration, Teachers College 
Columbia University 

and 

EDWARD SAMUEL EVENDEN 

Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College 
Columbia University 



Teachers College Syllabi, No. ii 



Published by 

tKeacfjcrtf College, Columbia tHniber«itp 

New York City 
1922 



Copyright, 1922, by Teachers College, Columbia University 



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JUL 20 1922 






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INTRODUCTION 



THE course for which this syllabus has been prepared is planned 
f. to present the fundamental principles of educational adminis- 

' . tration. It extends through the two semesters of the academic year. 

The topics included are those which should be covered in a first 

^ course for superintendents of schools. In Teachers College the 

course outlined in this syllabus is frequently elected by teachers, 
by elementary and high school principals, and by general and 
special supervisors. Intelligent and sympathetic understanding of 
the problems of organization and administration of schools is neces- 
sary for those who would render constructive cooperation to the 
school executive. A course such as is outlined in this syllabus might 
well be required of all who are to enter the teaching profession. 

The syllabus is organized in two main divisions. The first semes- 
ter's work may be described briefly as covering the field of educa- 
tional administration as determined by national, state, and county 
support, control, organization, and supervision. The second part 
of the syllabus organizes the field of educational administration 
from the standpoint of the local administrative unit. Since the 
greatest progress has been made in city school administration, the 
second part of the syllabus deals primarily with the problems arising 
in these local units. Either semester's work may be considered as 
a separate unit and elected for the semester in which it is offered. 
It will be best, however, that the course be taught in the order in 
which it appears in the syllabus. 

Many of the topics which appear are given special consideration 
in one semester or the other even though they may properly be 
considered in either part of the work. The emphasis is determined 
by the relative importance of the state as compared with the local 
administration of schools. For example, the preparation, certifica- 
tion, and tenure of teachers should be stressed in the first semester's 
work since these are primarily state problems. 

The syllabus is organized around certain definite problems which 
are presented to the students in terms of actual cases. The course 
in Teachers College is taught by the case rriethod. The syllabus 
presenting as it does an outline of the major problems, together with 
a selected bibliography, will enable those who may use it elsewhere 
either to follow the case method or to vary it as they may see fit. 



The outline will serve as a sufficient basis for organizing material 
obtained from consulting the references that are given, from the 
instructor's lectures, and from class discussion. 

The selected bibliographies appearing at the end of each section 
are not necessarily to be considered as assignments. They repre- 
sent a selected number of easily obtained references which might 
very properly be assigned by asking individuals or groups within 
the class to consult different references, rather than expecting that 
they could all read all of them. The nature and the amount of the 
assignment will vary in accordance with the time allotted to the 
course, and with the professional purpose which the student has 
in mind in electing a course in educational administration. 

George D. Strayer 
Edward S. Evenden 



PART I 

NATIONAL, STATE, AND COUNTY 
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 

First Semester's Work 

OUTLINE 
SECTION PAGE 

I. Changes in American Education 7 

II. A. The Federal Government and Education 10 

B. A Federal Department of Education 14 

III. Organization 19 

A. State 19 

B. County 24 

C. Consolidation of Schools 28 

D. Town, Township and District 32 

E. School Divisions 37 

IV. School Support 40 

V. Courses of Study and Textbooks 45 

VI. Teachers 50 

A. Preparation 50 

B. Certification 53 

C. Salary, Tenure and Pension 58 

D. Training in Service 62 

VII. Pupils 66 

A. School Census and Compulsory Attendance ... 66 

B. Health Supervision and Special Classes 71 

VIII. The School Plant and the State 75 



I. CHANGES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 

I . European Background of American Education. 

A. Varying attitudes toward and conditions of education in European 
countries before the discovery of America. 

I. Ancient and medieval influences. 

B. Development of national attitudes toward education in modern 
European nations up to beginning of nineteenth century. 

I. European influences upon "settlement purpose" of the several 
colonies. 

C. Effect of Renaissance and other such European movements upon 
American education. 

II. "Changing Conceptions of Education" since the Settlement of 
America. 

A. Attitude toward and early provisions for education in the several 
colonies. 

I. Reasons for differences. 

B. Changing social and economic conditions. 

1. Influence of inventions and industrial development. 
a. Causes and results in each period. 

2. Influence of periods of immigration. 

3. Influence of rapid growth of urban population. 

4. Effect of changed labor conditions. 

5. Effect of these changes upon the home and other social insti- 
tutions. 

C. Changing attitudes toward education. 

1. Purpose of education in colonial times. 

a. Variation of purpose for elementary education and for higher 
education. 

2. Development of the relationship of education to the state and 
its subdivisions. 

c. Stages in the development of public support of schools. 

b. Stages in the development of state control of education. 

c. Development of American public school systems in the sev- 
eral states. 

3. Development of content and organization of materials of instruc- 
tion. 

4. Some of the effects of the World War upon education. 

III. Changes in Attitude toward Supervision and Administration. 
A. Development of need for supervision. 
I. Early provisions for supervision. 



8 CHANGES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 

2. Present provisions and tendencies in supervision. 

a. Specialization within supervision. 

b. Relations between supervisors and teachers. 

B. Development of science of school administration. 
I. Knowledge and training involved. 

C. Changes in relation of teachers to supervisors and administrators. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Cubberley, E. P. Changing Conceptions of Education. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

(Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1914. 
Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States. Houghton Mifflin Co. 

(Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1919. 
Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in the 

United States. Chap, i-vii. Macmillan Co. New York 1915. 
Parker, S. C. History of Modern Elementary Education. Chap. Xll. Ginn and 

Co. Boston 1912. 



CHANGES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 9 

PROBLEM 

An Act: To Organize in Departments the Executive and Administrative 
Functions of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. (1919) 

Section 57. The department of education shall be under the supervision and 
control of a commissioner, to be known as the commissioner of education, and a 
board of six members to be known as the advisory board of education, all of 
whom shall be appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the 
council. The first appointment of the commissioner shall be for the term of one, 
two, three, four or five years as the governor may determine. Of the members 
of the advisory board of education first appointed, two shall be appointed for 
the term of one year, two for two years, and two for three years. Thereafter as 
the terms expire the governor shall appoint the commissioner for the term of 
five years, and the members of the board for the term of three years. He shall 
fill any vacancy for the unexpired term, and may, with the consent of the council, 
remove the commissioner or any member of the board. At least two members 
of the board shall be women, and one shall be appointed from among the teachers 
of the commonwealth. 

Section 58. The commissioner shall be the executive and administrative head 
of the department and shall organize the department in divisions, and supervise 
the same as herein provided. He shall have charge of the administration and 
enforcement of all laws, rules and regulations which it is the duty of the depart- 
ment to administer and enforce, and shall be chairman of the advisory board of 
education. He shall receive such annual salary, not exceeding seven thousand 
five hundred dollars, as the governor and council may determine. The board 
shall meet at least once a month, and at such other times as they may determine 
by their rules, and when requested by the commissioner or by any three members. 
They shall serve without compensation, but shall be reimbursed for their actual 
necessary expenses incurred in the performance of their duties. 

Section 5q. The department shall be organized in such divisions as the com- 
missioner may from time to time determine, but the department shall include 
a division of public libraries, a division of education of aliens, and a division of 
the blind. Each division shall be in charge of a director and shall be under the 
general supervision of the commissioner. 

QUESTIONS 

1 . What changes of attitude toward education are show n in this organization ? 

2. What points do you consider to be educational advances? Why? 

3. What criticisms do you have of the plan? Justify them. 

4. How would a department of education growing out of such an organiza- 
tion as this difYer from those with which you are familiar? 



II A. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION 

I. Education and the Constitution of the United States. 

A. Education in the several colonies previous to 1787. 

1. Relation of schools to ideals of the colonies. 

2. Reasons for unwillingness to change schools. 

B. Constitutional provision covering education. 

I . Location of responsibility and controlling authority. 

II. Relation of Federal Government to Education. 

A. Relation of the form of government to education. 

1 . Foundation principles of American democracy. 
a. Relation of these to education. 

2. Extent of federal government's interest in education. 

B. Relation of federal contributions to state control of education. 

I. Early attempts at federal participation (National University). 

III. Federal Contributions to American Education. 

A. The Public Domain and provisions for education. 

1. Acquisition and early survey's. « 

2. Ordinances of 1785 and 1787 a»'d Ohio Enabling Act of 1802. 

3. Public land grants for elementary education. 

a. Types of grants. 

b. Amounts of land granted. 

c. Attempts to equalize. 

d. Disposal of school lands. 

e. Present values. 

4. Other land subsidies for elementary education. 

5. Land grants for higher education. 
a. Early seminary grants. 

h. Morrill Acts. 

B. Distribution of surplus revenue and its use for education. 

C. Special federal legislation subsidizing schools. 

1. For experimental and extension work. 

2. For agricultural, industrial and other work in the secondary 
schools (Smith-Hughes and other acts) . 

3. For all other types of education. 

D. Educational activities of other federal departments. 

1. Number. 

2. Nature of work. 

3. Overlapping of functions. 

IV. Federal Contributions to Education during and after the 
World War. 



THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION 1 1 

A. Work done through established departments and agencies. 

B. Work done by special boards and other such agencies. 

1 . During the World War. 

2. After the war. 

3. Probable development. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bourne, Edward C. History of Surplus Revenue of 1837. G. P. Putnam & 
Sons. New York 1885. 

Cubberley, E. P. "National Government and Education." In Monroe's 
Cyclopedia of Education. Macmillan Co. New York 191 4. 
Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book — State and County School 
Administration. Vol. 11, Div. i. Macmillan Co. New York 1915. 
Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap. in. 

Germann, G. B. National Legislation Concerning Education. Columbia 
University. New York 1899. 

Keith, J. A. and Bagley, Wm. C. The Nation and the Schools. Macmillan 
Co. New York 1920. 

Strayer, George D. "Plan to Meet Emergency in Schools." Journal of Edu- 
cational Administration and Supervision, Vol. iv, p. 364 (Sept. 1918). 
Swift, Fletcher H. Public Permanent Common School Funds in the United 
States. Henry Holt & Co. New York 191 1. 

Webster, W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational Adminis- 
tration. Columbia University. New York 1897. 



12 



THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION 



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II B. A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

I. The Executive Cabinet of the Federal Government. 

A. Relation to the executive and other divisions of government. 

B. Order and dates of additions to executive cabinet. 

C. Variations in types between departments. 

D. Comparisons with organization of executive departments of other 
countries. 

II. A Department of Education. 

A, First establishment of this department. 

1. Reasons for establishment. 

2. Work assigned. 

B. Reorganization as Bureau of Education of the Department of the 
Interior. 

1. Reasons for change in administration. 

2. Work which has been accomplished by the U. S. Bureau of 
Education. 

a. Comparisons with other bureaus and departments. 
h. Restrictions imposed by present organization. 

III. Recent Attempt to Reestablish a Department of Education in 
the Federal Executive Cabinet. 

A. Educational conditions shown by and resulting from the World War. 

1 . Relation of these to national welfare. 

2. The "Commission on the Emergency in Education and a Pro- 
gram for Readjustment during and after the War." 

a. Method of work and investigation. 
h. Results of investigations. 
c. Recommendations. 

B. The Smith-Towner Bill. 

1. History of the bill in Congress. 

2. Provisions of the bill: 

a. For a department of education. 

h. For the equalization of educational opportunities. 

c. For meeting other "emergency" conditions. 

d. For safeguarding state control of education. 

3. The arguments for and against the bill. 

a. Those concerning principles involved. 

h. Those involving the form or particular provisions of the bill. 

C. The Towner-Sterling Bill. 

1. History of this bill in- Congress. 

2, Modifications in this bill from the Smith-Towner Bill. 

D. Other plans for reorganization of governmental departments. 



A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION I5 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bagley, W. C. "A Federal Department of Education." School and Home 
Education, March, 1920. 

2. Brief in Support of the Towner-Sterling Bill. Com. on Education of the 
Chamber of Commerce of the U. S., May, 1922. 

3. Burris, W. P. "A Federal Department of Education." Elementary School 
Journal, Vol. xx, No. 8 (April 1920). 

4. Capen, Samuel P. "Arguments Against the Smith-Towner Bill." Educational 
Review, Vol. 60, No. 4 (November 1920). 

5. Cubberley, E. P. "National Government and Education." In Monroe's 
Cyclopedia of Education. 

6. Education Bill. Joint Hearing before the Committees on Education and Labor, 
Congress of the United States. Sixty-sixth Congress First Session. 

7. Germann, G. B. National Legislation Concerning Education. 

8. Judd, Charles H. "Desirable Amendments of the Smith-Towner Bill." 
Elementary School Journal, Vol. xx, No. 8 (April 1920). 

9. Keith, J. A. and Bagley, Wm. C. The Nation and the Schools. 

10. Magill, Hugh S. Education and the Federal Government. Legislative Com- 
mission Series, No. 2. N. E. A. October 1921. 

11. Strayer, George D. "Making Good the Promise of Democracy." Good 
Housekeeping, February 192 1. 

12. Strayer, George D. "National Leadership and National Support for Edu- 
cation." School and Society, xi: 674 (June 5, 1920). 

13. Strayer, George D. "Why We Need A Secretary' of Education." Elementary 
School Journal, Vol. xx, No. 8 (April 1920). 

14. Strayer, George D. "The Need of a National Organization for Educational 
Service." Journal of National Education Association, Vol. 11, No. 5 (May 
1922). 



1 6 A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

PROBLEM 

Some Conditions Affecting American Education 1922 

There is at present no coordination of the many agencies responsible for 
the educational activities carried on by the Federal government. The pro- 
motion of education at the present time is a subordinate function scattered 
among seven of the ten departments of the government. 

The organization, supervision, and administration of education is in all 
modern nations, except the United States, included among sovereign powers 
because education is necessary to the preservation and advancement of the 
nation. In the United States the sovereign power over education is by the 
Tenth Amendment to the Constitution reserved to the states respectively, 
or to the people. 

The national consequences of education as carried on by the several states 
are as far reaching and as inescapable in the United States as they are in those 
nations which directly exercise sovereign power over education. The exercise 
of every sovereign function of the United States is determined by the educa- 
tion which is provided by the states. What is being done in the field of educa- 
tion by the states is the most important thing nationally that is taking place 
in our country. 

In order to encourage the states to found educational systems that would 
produce nationally desirable results. Congress early began and has con- 
tinued to provide national aid and encouragement to education in the several 
states. Prior to 1862 this aid was restricted to those states carved out of the 
public domain and related chiefly to public schools and state universities. 
Since that time Congress has definitely stimulated vocational education of 
high school and college grade. The stimulus and incentive supplied by 
Congress in the field of vocational education is illustrative of the method by 
which Congress may proceed constitutionally to secure nationally desirable 
results in education without interfering with the sovereign power of the 
several states over education within their respective jurisdictions. Federal 
aid to the states for educational purposes has acted as an incentive, has 
pointed the way, and has made education a cause that is at once national 
and state in character and outcome. 

From the latest data available the true wealth per capita in six selected 
states is as follows: 



Nevada $5,038 Tennessee 

Iowa 3,539 North Carolina 794 

North Dakota 3,374 Mississippi 726 

The contrast is almost as startling if the true wealth per pupil enrolled in 
schools is taken. Six selected states show the following contrasts: 

California $I9,377 Tennessee l3,398 

Montana 15,885 North Carolina 3,321 

New York 15,036 Mississippi 2,561 



A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION I7 

The actual variation in ability to support education is even greater than 
would appear from these figures, since income varies even more greatly than 
does wealth, which is expressed in terms of value of property. 

Income, excess profits, and internal revenue receipts are collected ver>' 
largely in the states engaged in the manufacture and distribution of goods. 
The income and profits derived are paid by citizens throughout the Nation. 
For the fiscal year 1920-21 the state of North Carolina paid $79,573,088 in 
internal revenue on the manufacture of tobacco. The product was used and 
the taxes actually paid throughout the length and breadth of the Nation. 

The recent migration of negroes from the South is an interesting illustra- 
tion of this fact. College graduates from the state universities of the nation 
are to be found in all parts of the country. The figures show that from sixteen 
to sixty-three per cent of the graduates of these institutions are distributed 
throughout other states of the Union. In like manner, in the privately 
endowed institutions of the United States from twenty to eighty-three per 
cent of the graduates are found in states other than those in which the insti- 
tution is located. 

According to the 1920 census, six per cent of our population above ten 
years of age are confessedly illiterate. That this is not a true measure of the 
menace of illiteracy is indicated by the fact that 24.09 per cent of the drafted 
men who were given psychological examinations during the great war were 
unable to take the test requiring the reading of very simple English. This 
measure of illiteracy by test is very much more significant than the confes- 
sion of illiteracy tabulated by the Census. The census itself shows, however, 
that the number of illiterates recorded in 1920 was greater than in 1910 in 
twelve states. For example, according to the census, the total number of 
illiterates in New York, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio, and New Jersey was 
954,131 in 1910 and 1,004,283 in 1920, an increase of 50,152. 

In a report compiled by the Civic Development Department of the Chamber 
of Commerce of the United States appears the following: "Certain industries 
employing immigrants discovered that the efficiency of those workers could 
be greatly increased by some expenditure for their education. It was also 
found that educational efforts of this kind tended to reduce the number of 
industrial accidents . . . The public school was and continues to be the 
largest factor in citizenship training and Americanization work in general. 
... It may be truly said that one result of the war was to bring home to 
the American people as a whole the importance of assimilating the newcomer 
to this country. Wartime investigations revealed a condition which but few 
outside of our social and civic agencies had realized, such as the existence of 
groups and colonies of unassiniilated immigrants unable to speak the language 
of their adopted country, and almost totally ignorant of its manners, customs, 
and political and civic institutions." 

In our great national army one third of those sent to camp were found 
unfit for combat service. The physicians making the examinations stated 
that a large percentage of the defects found were due to causes which could 
have been removed during the period of childhood and youth. In times of 



1 8 A FEDERAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

peace no less than in times of war the physical wellbeing of all of our people 
is a matter of the greatest national importance. The nation's losses are over 
a billion dollars annually due to premature deaths and illness that could be 
prevented by proper educational efforts. 

There are thirty thousand teachers in the United States who have no 
education beyond that furnished in a one-teacher, rural elementary school. 
There are nine states in which forty per cent or more of the teachers hold 
licenses which require less than a high school education. For the whole of 
the United States not more than twenty-five per cent of the teachers hold 
licenses which require two years of professional training beyond high school 
education, a standard which has been acknowledged as a proper minimum 
preparation for teaching in elementary schools. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What have been the contributing causes to the above conditions? 

2. To what extent do the above conditions affect our national welfare? 

3. What remedial measures have been used on any of the above conditions? 
With what results? 

4. In what ways and to what extent would the establishment of a Federal 
department of education assist in the improvement of these conditions? 



Ill A. ORGANIZATION— STATE 

I. Responsibility of States for Education. 

A. Variety of educational provisions in the states. 

B. Variety' in state organizations for the control of education. 

C. Development of centralization in the control of education. 

1. Arguments for and against centralization in educational control. 

2. History of development in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsyl- 
vania. 

II. State Board of Education. 

A. Development of idea of state control through a board. 

B. Composition of state board of education. 

1. How members are selected. 

2. Qualifications. 

3. Number. 

4. Term. 

5. Remuneration. 

C. Organization of the state board of education. 

D. Meetings of the state board of education. 

E. Powers and duties of the state board. 

III. State Superintendent or Commissioner. 

A. Relation of state superintendent to the state board of education. 

B. Selection and tenure of the state superintendent. 

1 . Present practices. 

2. Best methods. 

C. Qualifications of state superintendent of education. 

1. Prescribed by-laws. 

2. Preparation: 

a. Actual, h. Desired. 

3. Personal. 

D. Powers and duties of state superintendent. 

1 . Legislative. 

2. Executive. 

3. Judicial. 

IV. State Department of Education. 

A. Relation to state board and to state superintendent. 

B. Departmental organization. 

1. Staff. 

2. Functions. 

3. Coordination. 



20 ORGANIZATION — STATE 

C. Departmental publications. 

1 . Special reports and bulletins. 

2. Annual reports. 

a. Function, b. Contents, c. Form. 
Tf Other publications. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. I. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book — State and County School 
Administration. Chap, v and xi. 

3. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education m the 
United States. Chap, iv and v and Bibliographies for each chapter. 

4. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See Index. Macmillan Co. 
New York 19 14. 

5. State School Laws for New York, Massachusetts, California, Maryland, 
Ohio and other states. 

6. State Surveys. Chapters on State Organization. Bulletins of the United 
States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C: 

Alabama 1919 No. 41 North Dakota 1918 No. 31 

Arizona 1917 No. 44 Wyoming 1916 No. 29 

7. Surveys by General Education Board, New York. Chapters on State Organi- 
zation: 

Delaware 19 1 9 Kentucky 192 1 North Carohna 192 1 

8. Virginia Public Schools, A Survey. Chap, xvi and xviii. World Book Co. 
Yonkers 1920, 



ORGANIZATION STATE 21 

PROBLEM 1 

Organization of the University of the State of New York 

The corporation originally created under name of the "Regents of the 
University of the State of New York" is hereby continued under the name of 
the University of the State of New York; objects shall be to encourage and 
promote education, to visit and inspect its several institutions and depart- 
ments, to distribute or administer for them funds appropriated by the State 
therefor or such as the university may hold in trust, and to perform such 
other duties as may be intrusted to it. Said university shall be governed by a 
board of regents whose members shall at all times be three more than the 
number of judicial districts of the state; regents shall be elected by the state 
legislature one each year, no person shall at the same time be a regent and 
an officer of an institution of the university. 

The elective officers of the university shall be a chancellor and vice- 
chancellor, to serve without salary, and such other officers as regents may 
determine; no election, removal, or change of salary of an elective officer 
shall be made by less than six votes in favor thereof; each regent and each 
elective officer shall take oath of office; chancellor shall preside at meetings 
of regents and shall confer degrees authorized by regents. 

Regents may provide regular meetings, and the chancellor, or commissioner 
or education, or any five regents, may call special meetings; any regent who 
shall fail to attend three consecutive meetings without satisfactory excuse 
may be deemed to have resigned; seven regents a quorum. Regents shall 
exercise legislative functions of the educational system of State, and, except 
as to judicial functions of commissioner, establish rules for each system. 
Regents may confer honorary^ degrees, and may establish examinations as 
bases for conferring diplomas, certificates, and degrees; shall establish exam- 
inations for graduation from secondary schools and of admission to college; 
may register domestic and foreign institutions in terms of New York stand- 
ards; may supervise entrance requirements to and the licensing and prac- 
ticing of medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, pharmacy and optome- 
try, and the certification of nurses and public accountants; may provide 
educational extension facilities. State library and state museum shall be 
departments of the university. The institutions of the university shall include 
all secondary and higher educational institutions which are now or may 
hereafter be incorporated in the State, and such other libraries, museums, 
institutions, schools, organizations, and agencies for education as may be 
admitted to or incorporated by the university; regents may exclude any 
institution not complying with law. Every institution in the university shall 
be subject to visitation by the regents or their representatives, and shall 
make required reports. 

Regents may incorporate any educational institution, any association for 
promotion of any department of knowledge, any association of educational 
workers, or other educational or cultural organizations; may grant provisional 
charters. No institution shall confer degrees unless it shall have resources of 



22 ORGANIZATION STATE 

at least $500,000; and no institution for higher education shall be incorporated 
without suitable provision for equipment and maintenance. 

The State education department shall be under legislative direction of the 
regents and executive direction of the commissioner of education; said depart- 
ment shall have management and supervision of all public schools and all 
educational work of the State, including universities of the State; said depart- 
ment may be divided by concurrent action of regents and commissioner. 
Commissioner shall appoint, with approval of regents, assistant commis- 
sioners; may, with approval of regents, appoint all other officers and em- 
ployees and fix their titles, duties, and salaries; may, with approval of regents, 
remove any appointive officer or employee; may, when regents are not in 
session, suspend, without salary, any appointive officer or employee, but for 
no longer than adjournment of succeeding meeting of regents. Regents and 
commissioner shall together adopt a seal. Commissioner shall make annual 
report of education department, including the university, to the legislature; 
regents or commissioner may make other reports to the legislature; such 
reports may be printed as bulletins. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State three principles of educational administration which you consider 
are exemplified in the New York organization. Justify your answer. 

2. What departments are organized in the university at the present time? 
Would you recommend any additions or eliminations of departments? 

3. Are any phases of the above organization applicable in New York alone? 
Which ones? Why? 



ORGANIZATION — STATE 



23 



PROBLEM 2 

The Proposed Educational Organization for a State 



THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE 
Electing 



:z: 



GOVERNOR 
who appoints 



x: 



LEGISLATURE 
which regelates 




Normal School 
Boards 



Normal Schools 

and 
Teachers Collegee 



Board of Begents 
for University 



Assistant Commissioners 
acting as 
Heads of Divisions 



The State 
University 




*Precedes the numbers of these divisions now existing in more or less perfectly organized form. 



QUESTIONS 

1 . Criticise the above organization from the standpoint of (c) centralization 
of the control; (b) localization of responsibility; (c) completeness with 
which the field is covered. 

2. Are any relationships expressed in the diagram which you think should 
not exist? If so, which ones? 

3. Are there any relationships which you think should exist which are not 
expressed in the diagram? 

4. Indicate in the above diagram any changes or additions which you con- 
sider desirable and give reasons for suggested changes. 

[The above diagram is taken from the Report of the Special Legislative Committee on Education 
for California, page 25.) 



Ill B. ORGANIZATION— COUNTY 

I. The County as a Unit of Educational Administration. 

A. Development of the county as educational unit. 

1. History. 

2. Where developed. 

3. Relation to township system. 

B. Present practices in county school administration. 

1. Disadvantages. Reasons for present practices. 

2. Advantages and limitations. 

3. The "County Unit" in operation. 

C. Relation of county organization to city districts within the county. 

II. The County Board of Education. 

A. Organization of present boards. 

B. Composition of "County Unit" board. 

1. Selection. 

2. Qualifications of members. 

3. Number. 

4. Term. 
5- Pay. 

C. Organization, meetings, powers, and duties of a county board of 
education. 

III. County Superintendent of Schools. 

A. Present status of county superintendents in the several states. 

B. Selection and tenure of county superintendents. 
I. Method of selection. 2. Qualifications. 

3. Term. 4. Salary. 

C. Powers and duties of the county superintendent. 

IV. Other Officers of the County Board of Education. 

A. Relation to the county superintendent. 

B. Relation to State departments. 

V. Plans for Introduction of County System of Administration. 

A. Criticism of plans which have been used. 

I. Utah. 2. Tennessee. 3. Wisconsin. 4. Ohio. 5. Others. 

B. General plan of procedure. 

1. Preliminary questions to be asked in any campaign. 

2. Preliminary survey: 

a. By whom. h. Extent, c. Itemis studied, d. Use of. 

3. Extent of introduction. 



ORGANIZATION — COUNTY 25 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Revised Edition. Chap. 
XXVIII. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston 1922. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Rural Life and Educatioji. Chap, x and xiv. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. (Riverside Series). Boston 19 14. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. 11. 
Appendices D and E. 

4. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book — State and County School 
Administration. Chap. ix. 

5. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administratio7i of Public Education in 
the United States, pp. 73-85. 

6. Evans, L. B. "County Unit Organization in Georgia." Educational Revieiv, 
\o\. XI, pp. 369-73. Also Cubberley and Elliott, Source Book, p. 246. 

7. Monahan, A. C. County Unit Organization. U. S. Bureau of Education, 
Bui. No. 44, 1914. 

8. Public Education in Delaware (survey). Chap, iv and xi. General Education 
Board. New York 1919. 

9. Public Education in Kentucky (survey). Chap, in and xi. General Education 
Board. New York 192 1. 

10. State Surveys by United States Bureau of Education: Alabama, Arizona, 
North Dakota, Wyoming. Chapters on County Organization. 

11. Strayer, George D. Report of a Survey of Public Education in Nassau County, 
New York. University of the State of New York, Albany. December 1917. 

12. Vtrghiia Public Schools — A Survey. Chap. XIX. Virginia State Educational 
Commission. 1919. 

13. Williams, J. H. Reorganizing a County System. U. S. Bureau of Education, 
Bui. No. 16, 1916. 



26 



ORGANIZATION COUNTY 

PROBLEM 11 




|P P P I L S I 

Criticise the above scheme of county organization for a county having the 
conditions described in the following data. Make out the personnel for the 
administrative and supervisory staff, stating number of persons and suggested 
salary. 

Total land area 274 miles. Population 116,825. Largest village has popu- 
lation of 7500. Majority of people scattered in small villages. Has 63 inde- 
pendent school districts, with 87 buildings. There are 7 one-room schools, 
8 two-room schools, 5 three-room schools, 8 four-room schools, and all others 
are 5 rooms or more. Total assessed valuation $129,933,679. Tax rate per 
$100 is .715. School population 14,636. Average daily attendance 10,448. 
649 regular teachers and 47 special teachers. 

^ From Report of a Survey of Public Educaiior: iv Nassau County, New York. p. 229. University 
of the State of New York. Albany 1918. 



ORGANIZATION — COUNTY 2"] 

PROBLEM 2 

Advantages of the County Unit i 

1. Equalizes educational opportunity by apportioning the funds of the county 
school district to each school according to its needs. 

2. Equalizes educational opportunity by providing a superintendent for the 
rural schools who is selected solely on the grounds of education, training and 
successful experience. 

3. Equalizes educational opportunity by providing for efficient supervision of 
the rural schools. 

4. Guarantees to each child in the county school district that which rightfully 
belongs to hirn — an equal number of days' schooling with every other child. 

5. Equalizes the burden of school support by providing a uniform tax lev-y for 
the entire county school district. The big district and the little district, the 
rich land and the poor land, are all taxed uniformly. 

6. Abolishes the present system whereby, because of purely arbitrary boundary 
lines, a large and prosperous district with few pupils pays a small school tax 
while small and poor districts are compelled to pay a large tax. 

7. Favored districts which, under the present pernicious plan, escape with little 
or no taxation will be compelled to pay their just share for the support of the 
schools. 

8. Eliminates partisan politics and local residence in selecting the most important 
school official in the county — the count}' superintendent of schools. 

9. Favors the consolidated, graded, equipped, and supervised rural school. 
Consolidation has made the greatest progress in states with the township 
or county system. 

10. Permits the wholesale buying of school supplies and the elimination of ex- 
pensive small-unit business transactions. 

11. Enables every county to establish and maintain a good system of schools. 

12. Stops forever the dispute about boundary lines and eliminates petty neigh- 
borhood dissensions. 

13. Provides for better teachers and a longer tenure. The average school director 
has no standards by which to judge the applicant for a teaching position. 

14. Produces a greater return for every dollar expended. 

15. Groups both the burden and the advantages of education on a large scale and 
provides a comprehensive and efficient plan for the whole county. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Criticise the above arguments in favor of the county as the unit of ad- 
ministration. 

2. What facts are available to substantiate any of these arguments? 

3. Are there any situations in which these arguments would not hold? Which 
ones would be negated? 

4. What additional arguments would you add? 

1 From the Report of the Public School Administrative Code Commission oj the State of Washing- 
ton, paee 23. 



Ill C. ORGANIZATION— CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS 

I. The Rural School Problem in America. 

A. Importance of rural school problem. 

1. Economic elements involved. 

a. Population. 

b. Wealth. 

c. Relation of production to national wealth. 

d. Changes in agricultural methods. 

2. Educational elements involved. 

a. Prevailing standards. 

b. Needed changes. 

B. The typical rural school (one or two rooms). 

I, History. 2. Advantages. 3. Disadvantages. 

II. Solutions to the Rural School Problem. 

A. Constructive legislation, 

B. Standardization. 

C. Training teachers for rural schools. 

D. Consolidation of schools. 
I. History of movement. 

III. Consolidation of Rural Schools. 

A. Arguments used against consolidation. 

B. Arguments used in favor of consolidation. 

1. Educational. 

2. Social. 

3. Financial and economic. 

C. Problems in effecting consolidation. 

1. Legislation. 

2. Selection of locality. 

3. Campaign of information. 

4. Introduction. 

IV. Administration of the Consolidated School. 

A. Building — extra provisions necessary. 

B. Teaching corps. 

C. Transportation. 

I. Methods. 2. Dangers. 3. Advantages. 4. Costs. 

D. Community center activities. 

E. Importance of initial success. 



ORGANIZATION CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS 29 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Carney, Mabel. Country Life and Country School, pp. I48f. Row, Peterson 
& Co. New York 1912. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Rural Life and Education, pp. 23of. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Appendix D. 

4. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book — State and Coutity School 
Administration. Vol. ii. Chap. x. 

5. Finegan, Thomas E. "Elementary Education." In Annual Report of the Uni- 
versity of the State of New York. Vol. 11, pp. 277f. 19 17. 

6. Monahan, A. C. Consolidation of Rural Schools and Trans portatu>?i of Pupils 
at Public Expense. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 30, 1914. Contains 
extensive bibliography. 

7. Rapeer, L. W. The Consolidated Rural School. Chas. Scribner's Sons. 
New York 1920. 

8. Riegel, M. A Study of Rural Schools in Ohio. State Department of Educa- 
tion, Columbus, Ohio. 1920. 

9. Showalter, N. D. A Handbook for Rural School OfUcers. Chap. xv. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co. Boston 1920. 

[Q. Skidmore, C. H. Administration and Supervision in the Box Elder School 
District, Utah. Board of Education, Brigham City, Utah. 1921. 

[I. Strayer, Engelhardt and Hart. Consolidation of Rural Schools in Delaware. 
Service Citizens of Delaware. Wilmington, Del. 1919. 

12. Virginia Public Schools — A Survey. Chap. xv. 



30 



ORGANIZATION — CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS 



PROBLEM 1 

Increase Before and After Consolidation ^ 



Year Ending June 



Census, 6-18 years . 
Av. Daily Attendance 
Per cent of census in Av, 

D.A 

Number of Schools 
Number of Male Teach 

ers 

Number of Female 

Teachers . . . 
Total Teachers . . 
Av. Pupils Per Teacher 
Total Enrolled . . . 

In 1st Grade , . . 

In 6th Grade . . 

In 8th Grade . . 

In 9th Grade . . 

In 1 2th Grade . . 

In 9 to 12 inclusive 
8th Grade Promotions 
High School Graduates 
Total Promotions . . . 



Before Consolidation 



1877 



1.443 
868 

60 

25 



19 

37 
29 

1,084 



2,075 
1,057 

51 

34 



20 
40 
39 

1,547 



1897 



3,018 
1,695 

56 
59 

33 

19 

52 

51 

2,670 

309 

232 
136 

63 
o 

63 

63 

o 

1,300 



A 
1907 



3,830 
2,601 

68 
61 

37 

69 

106 

34 

3,552 

443 

329 

223 

63 
o 

63 

135 

o 

2,375 



After Consolidation 



B 
191: 



4,560 
3,451 

76 



46 

87 

133 

31 

4,067 

479 
390 
354 
132 

18 
250 

275 
16 

3,581 



C 
1917 



5,693 
3,627 

64 

46 

42 

108 

165 

33 

4,911 

713 

499 

348 

831 

74 

516 

314 

65 

3,936 



D 
1921 



5,747 
4,735 

82 
45 

55 

133 

188 

30.3 
5,690 

754 
574 
480 

432 

75 

865 

428 

68 

4,910 



Per 
Cent 
of In- 
crease 
Since 

1907 



50 

82 

21 

Less 



93 

77 

Less 

60 

70 

75 

115 

585 

All 

1273 

202 

All 

106 



1 Data taken from Administration and Supervision in the Box Elder School District, Utah, 
page 89. 



QUESTIONS 



1 . What are the significant facts in the above table? 

2. What arguments in favor of the consolidation of schools are supported by 



this table? Give illustrations. 



ORGANIZATION — CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS 
PROBLEM 2 



31 



Dis- 
trict 
No. 


Property 
Valua- 
tion ' 


Total 
Ex- 
pendi- 
ture 


Sala- 
ries 


Jani- 
tor, 

Fuel, 
etc. 


Cen- 
sus 
6-18 


A.D. 
A. 


Term 

in 
Mos. 


No. 
Teach- 
ers 


Salary 
Dis- 
trict 
Clerk 


High 
School 
Tui- 
tion 


I 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


$220,000 
260,000 
150,000 
300,000 
120,000 
450,000 


$1,500 
2,150 
1,320 
2,230 
1,250 
8,800 


$800 

1,050 

800 

900 

800 

5,250 


$350 
400 
220 
430 
250 

1.750 


30 
40 
22 
56 
18 
164 


16 
30 
10 
32 
9 
"3 


8 
10 

8 

9 

8 

9 


I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
5 


$100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
200 


$300 
600 
200 
800 
100 

1,600 



' Property valuation three-fourths of real valuation. 



Conditions 

State and county provisions for support of schools grant $30 per pupil in 
average daily attendance and $350 per full-time teacher employed. Districts 
are all connected by good roads. Tuition for high school pupils is $100 a year 
in the nearest city high school. State law provides minimum salary of $800, 
and minimum term of 8 months. Sites in districts to be abandoned valued at 
about $8000, and old building at about $4000. Assume that you are the 
County Superintendent of the county in which these schools are located. 
Work out plan for consolidation with District 6 which you would present to 
the districts. Use budget form for the plan. Provide for new central school 
to cost $100,000 (or $150,000 if budget will permit). State advantages to be 
derived from your proposed plan. State will pay one-half of transportation 
costs. 



Road l!ap of Consolidated School District. 




Scale - 1 Inch equals 1 mile. 
R.R. not available for transportation of children. 



Ill D. ORGANIZATION— TOWN, TOWNSHIP AND 
DISTRICT 

I. Town and Township Organization of Schools. 

A. Origin and development of town as unit. 

1. In New England. 

2. In other sections. 

B. Comparison with other units of administration. 

1. County. 

2. District. 

C. Present status of this system as an administrative unit. 

II. District Organization of Schools. 

A. Origin and spread of the plan. 

1. In colonial period. 

2. In 19th century. 

3. At present time. 

B. Present status of district organization in the United States. 

1. States where district system prevails. 

2. States where district system is combined in various ways with 
other units. 

3. Recent legislation affecting the district organization. 

C. Merits and defects of district system. 

1 . As shown in current practice. 

2. As influenced by changing conceptions of education. 

3. As evidenced by recent legislative changes. 

D. Organization and administration of school districts. 

1. How districts are determined. 

a. By location. 

b. By population. 

c. By property values. 

2. Kinds of school districts. 
a. Bases for classification. 

3. Organization of school districts. 

a. Officers — -number — selection — duties. 

b. Relation to state system and state officers. 

c. Relation to county or town system. 

d. Variations in organization by kinds, sizes, and location of 
districts. 

E. Function of the local district organization in modern education. 



ORGANIZATION — TOWN, TOWNSHIP AND DISTRICT 33 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. iii. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book — State and County School 
Administration. Vol. 11, Chap, vi, vii, and viii. 

3. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap. vi. 

4. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See "Town System" and " Town- 
ship System." 

5. Public Education in Delaware. Chap. V and XI. 

6. Public Education in Kentucky. Chap, in and xi. 

7. Showalter, N. D. A Handbook for Rural School Officers. Chap, iv and xiv. 

8. State Surveys by U. S. Bureau of Education for Alabama, Arizona, Colorado, 
North Dakota and Wyoming. Chapters on Local School Administration. 



34 



ORGANIZATION — TOWN, TOWNSHIP AND DISTRICT 



PROBLEM 1 

The Distribution of Financial Ability and Burden Under the 

Present District System of Educational Administration 

(Nassau County, New York) 







District 
Number 


Amount Raised 


Assessed Valu- Tax 


Rate 






Per Pupil by 


ation Per Pupil Pro 


posed 






Tax (1914-15) 


(1914-15) (19] 


5-16) 






28 


$430 


$201,357 


32 






18 


114 


42,159 


26 






27 


75 


10,674 


51 






3 


66 


20,154 


335 






7 


53 


9,274 


50 






25 


51 


13,342 


51 




^ 


23 


46 


8,549 


623 




^ 


2 


45 


18,560 


25 




o 


16 


45 


27,449 


24 




O 
< 


26 


44 


12,481 


30 






17 


39 


7,042 


65 






22 


37 


9,853 


48 






6 


35 


5,489 


63 




5 


33 


19,349 


18 






13 


29 


7,764 


50 






4 


28 


3,142 


925 






19 


26 


4,374 


9a 






8 


22 


3,200 I 


52 






23 


88 


20,845 


22 






10 


67 


17,121 


26 






4 


62 


10,853 


42 






II 


59 


25,992 


19 






2 


57 


6,404 


56 




•^ 
^ 


15 


51 


9,337 


24 




g 


12 


45 


4,279 


32 




ix 


14 


43 


6,163 


32 




< 

PO 


3 


43 


18,723 


28 






19 


41 


3,200 


80 






I 


40 


7,239 


45 




O 


13 


39 


12,756 


10 






21 


39 


2,683 I 


20 






18 


32 


3,861 


50 






8 


25 


9,136 


17 






20 


19 


3,355 


50 



Note. This table is calculated directly from the reports of the District Superintendents to the 
State Department of Education. None of the above districts attempt to maintain a high school 
department. From Report of a Survey of Public Education in Nassau County, University of 
the State of New York, Albany, 1918, Table I. 



ORGANIZATION — TOWN. TOWNSHIP AND DISTRICT 35 

QUESTIONS 

1 . Pick out from the above table some of the most noticeable inequalities. 
(Tables similar to this may be assembled in practically every state.) 

2. Compute the differences in financial "burden" carried by several of the 
districts. 

a. In terms of tax rate. 

b. On basis of equal amounts raised per pupil. 

PROBLEM 2 

The following lists of duties and powers were prescribed by the school law 
of Illinois (1921) for district school boards of three elected members in dis- 
tricts with less than one thousand inhabitants. 

Assume (A) that the state is operating upon the "district basis" and (B) 
that it is operating upon the "county unit" basis. 

I. Criticise the list on the basis of assumption (A) as to their desirability 
as functions of a local school board. Justify criticism and state by whom 
rejected duties should be performed. 

II. Criticise the list in the same way on the basis of assumption (B). 

1. Shall be a body politic and corporate, sue and be sued. 

2. Shall give 10 days notice of all elections. 

3. Give notices of special elections to fill vacancies in board of directors 
caused by removal from district or other causes. 

4. Shall conduct all elections and report results. 

5. Shall hold regular and special meetings. 

6. Shall keep a reliable record of all official acts. 

7. Shall make an annual financial and statistical report. 

8. Report the teacher's name and the dates of contract. 

9. Provide revenue necessary to maintain schools. 

10. Divide taxes of districts in two or more townships. 

11. Adopt and enforce all necessary rules and regulations. 

12. Visit and inspect the public schools. 

13. Appoint all teachers and fix their salaries. 

14. Direct what branches of study shall be taught, what textbooks and 
apparatus shall be used and enforce uniformity of textbooks in the public 
schools. 

15. Maintain sufficient free schools for at least 7 months. 

16. Purchase textbooks and loan them to pupils whose parents are unable to 
provide them. 

17. Send all teachers' schedules to township treasurer. 

18. Pay money only .to teachers holding certificate of qualification. 

19. Enter in records and post a copy of township treasurer's report. 

20. Keep and maintain, in good repair, all division fences between school 
grounds and adjoining lands. 

21. Purchase a suitable book for their records. 



36 ORGANIZATION TOWN, TOWNSHIP AND DISTRICT 

22. Allow the clerk a reasonable compensation for his service. 

23. Dismiss a teacher for incompetency, cruelty, negligence, etc. 

24. To assign pupils to the several schools, admit non-resident pupils and 
fix rates of tuition. 

25. Expel pupils guilty of gross disobedience or misconduct. 

26. Provide that children under 12 shall not be kept in school more than four 
hours daily. 

27. Purchase libraries and apparatus. 

28. Sell unnecessary personal property belonging to the district. 

29. Grant special holidays. 

30. Control all school houses in district and grant temporary use of them for 
other purposes. 

31. Decide when a site or building is inadequate for needs. 

32. Borrow money and issue bonds. 

33. Furnish each school with a flag and staff. 

34. Establish classes for the deaf and provide a trained teacher. 

35. Establish classes for crippled children. 

36. Establish kindergartens and provide special teachers. 

37. Issue warrants against taxes to be levied when no funds are available. 

38. Pay the wages of teachers monthly. 

PROBLEM 3 

"Copy" 

Copy of a letter sent by the chairman of a local school board to a county 
superintendent relative to the hiring of a teacher. (Previous teacher, taught 
upon emergency certificate and failed to secure certification.) 



Dear Sir A few words to you about the School teacher we as Commissioner it dos 
not Suit us to take a man as we cannnot hardly get Board for awoman it is Still 
hardder if we take a man i tell you now we dent a man down heare if have any 
thing to do with the School the teacher we had Suited all Right she was hear She 
understood the Children here and Shee understood them the Same one Wanter to 
Come to Come back to us i no this is dos not suit us to be to Change teacher the 
Children dosen Learn as Much We as three Com dos not want I don your truely 



if we Cant have any thing to Say about who we Should have for ateacher it is no 
use to have us in as a Commissioner We dont want any man down heare for this 
School i see what it takes down heare i have been in School work for 12 year i no 
a Little About School work 

QUESTION 

I . State at least five arguments against extreme "decentralization" in educa- 
tional control suggested by this letter. 



Ill E. ORGANIZATION— SCHOOL DIVISIONS 

I. Historical Development of School Divisions. 

A. Order of development. 

B. Causes of development. 

C. Interacting results of these changes. 

D. Changes and developments peculiar to the United States. 

II. Kindergartens. 

A. Relation to other divisions. 

I. Function. 2. Subject matter. 

B. Organization. 

I. Present forms. 2. Possible changes. 

C. Administration. 

I. Present practices. 2. Tendencies. 

D. Experiments, proposals and new types of service. 

III. Elementary Schools. 
Same as II. 

IV. Junior High School. 
Same as II. 

V. Secondary Schools. 
Same as II. 

VI. Higher Education. 
Same as II. 

VII. Special Forms of Education. 

A. Industrial and Vocational Schools. 

B. Vestibule and upgrading schools. 

C. Evening schools. 

D. Continuation schools. 

E. Adult and Americanization schools. 

F. Play, recreation and physical training. 

G. Libraries, museums and lyceum courses. 
H. Other special schools. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. State and Country Reorganization. Chap, iv, v, and vi. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States. Consult Table of 
Contents and Index. (Bibliographies for special topics at ends of chapters.) 



38 ORGANIZATION — SCHOOL DIVISIONS 

3. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Division 11. 

4. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration 0} Public Educatioji in the 
United States. Chap, xviii, xx and xxii. 

5 Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See different topics. 

Note. A bibliography on these topics is very extensive. Hand in a list of any references you find 
particularly helpful, stating the phase covered by each. 



ORGANIZATION' SCHOOL DIVISIONS 39 

PROBLEM 

Given Conditions 

A state, population 2,500,000. One (extensive manufacturing) city of 
100,000 and three of about 50,000, one of which is a railway center, the other 
two distributing points. Many smaller cities and villages. The state pre- 
dominantly agricultural and stock raising. Property valuation $8,750,000,000, 
per capita wealth $3,500 and has been steadily though slowly increasing 
during the previous 10 years. The people are progressive only in a ver>' con- 
servative way. Very partial to the traditional way of doing things. There is 
a state board of education of 9 appointed members who select the state 
commissioner of education. The state has the county system in so far as the 
election of a county superintendent goes, but it is virtually managed upon 
the district basis. The state and county assist the districts in the support of 
the elementary' schools (grades i to 8 inclusive), but any other kind of school 
must be locally supported. There was an intermediate school with the tradi- 
tional courses started two years ago in one of the cities of 50,000, but it is 
proving more expensive than regular schools. Three high schools in smaller 
cities receive assistance from the Smith-Hughes Act for teachers of agricul- 
ture. There is a state supported university with an agricultural experiment 
station in connection with it and a total attendance of 1500. There are two 
small state supported normal schools with an attendance of 275 and 400 
respectively. Courses 2 years above high school graduation. The state has 
also a high school teacher training class in the fourth year of the high school 
course (observation but no practice teaching). 

Problem 

Outline a scheme of public education for this state beginning with the 
kindergarten and extending through the university, which you think will 
meet the particular needs of the state. Specify each division and kind of 
special school above the elementary' division and state about the number of 
students to be provided for by each kind of school. 



IV. SCHOOL SUPPORT 

I. History of School Support in the United States. 

A. European traditions. 

B. Development of forms of support. 

I. Order of appearance. 2. Reasons for changes. 

C. Sources of school incomes. 

D. Present tendencies. 

II. Principles Involved in School Support. 

A. Development and degree of acceptance. 

B. Methods used to secure desired results. 

III. Distribution of School Funds. 

A. Historical development. 

B. Various bases of distribution. 

I. Single. 2. Combination. 3. Effort and need. 

C. Advantages and disadvantages of each basis. 

IV. The Place of a Budget in State School Support. 

A. Form and content of such a budget. 

B. By what units made (Interrelations). 

C. Use and advantages to be expected from budget system. 

V. Present Practices in the Various States in School Support. 

VI. A Proposed General Plan of State School Support. 

A. Plan of support by the state. 

I. Regular divisions. 2. Special education. 

B. Amount of support. 

I. Political units. 2. Unit costs. 

C. Special provisions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. School Funds and Their Apportionment. Teachers College, 
New York 1906. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Stale and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. 
VII and VIII and Appendix C. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States. (For the develop- 
ment of the various phases, see particularly Chap, v.) 

4. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Division 11. 

5. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in 
the United States, pp. I44ff. 



SCHOOL SUPPORT 4 1 

6. Howerth, Ira W. "The Apportionment of School Funds." Educational Review. 
Vol. 46, pp. 273-84 (October 1913). 

7. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. (See topics.) 

8. Public Education in Delaware — Survey. Chap, ix and xi. 

9. Swift, Fletcher H. Public Permanent Common School Funds in the United 
States. 

10. Swift, Fletcher H. "Common School Finance in Alabama." Educational Ad- 
ministration and Supervision, Vol. V, No. 7 (September 1919) 

11. State Surveys. Chapters on Taxation and Support. 

12. School Laws — New York, California, Ohio. 



42 SCHOOL SUPPORT 

PROBLEM 

Extracts from the school laws of New York and Missouri dealing with the 
systems of school support, particularly with the state's participation in school 
support, are given below. 

In the light of the principles of school support and the distribution of 
school funds, criticise these two state systems and list any changes which 
you would consider desirable and the reason for your recommendations. 

I. New York — 1921 
Article 18. School Moneys. 

Section 490. When apportioned and how applied. The amount annually appro- 
priated by the Legislature for the support of common schools shall be apportioned 
by the Commissioner of Education on or before the twentieth day of January in 
each year as hereinafter provided; and all moneys so apportioned shall be applied 
exclusively to the payment of teachers' salaries. 

Section 491. Apportionment of moneys appropriated for the support of common 
schools. After setting apart therefrom for a contingent fund not more than ten 
thousand dollars, the Commissioner of Education shall apportion the money ap- 
propriated for the support of common schools: 

1. To each city and to each union school district which has a population of five 
thousand and which employs a superintendent of schools, eight hundred dollars. 
This shall be known as a supervision quota. 

2. To each district having an assessed valuation of twenty thousand dollars or 
less, two hundred dollars. 

3. To each district having an assessed valuation of forty thousand dollars or 
less, but exceeding twenty thousand dollars, one hundred and seventy-five dollars. 

4. To each district having an assessed valuation of sixty thousand dollars or 
less, but exceeding forty thousand dollars, and to each Indian reservation for 
each teacher employed therein for a period of one hundred and eighty days or 
more, one hundred fifty dollars (Subdivision 4, amended by L. 1917, ch. 74, in 
effect March 20, 1917). 

5. To each of the orphan asylums which meet the conditions mentioned in 
article 35 of this chapter, one hundred and twenty-five dollars. 

6. To each of the remaining districts and to each of the cities in the State one 
hundred twenty-five dollars. The apportionment provided for by subdivisions 
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 shall be known as district quotas. 

7. To each such district, city and orphan asylum for each additional qualified 
teacher and his successors by whom the common schools have been taught during 
the period of time required by law, one hundred dollars. The apportionment pro- 
vided for by this subdivision shall be known as the teachers' quota. 

8. To a school district or a city which has failed to maintain school for one 
hundred eighty days or which has employed an extra teacher for a shorter period 
than one hundred eighty days such part of a district or teacher's quota as seems to 
him equitable when the reason for such failure is in his judgment sufficient to 
warrant such action; but in case such failure to maintain a school in such district 
or city for a period of one hundred eighty days was caused by the prevalence of an 
infectious or contagious disease in the community, the Commissioner may in his 
discretion apportion to such district or city full district and teachers' quotas 
(Subdivision 8 amended by L. 1917, ch. 74, in effect March 20, 1917). 



SCHOOL SUPPORT 43 

9. To each separate neighborhood such sum as in his opinion it is equitably 
entitled to receive upon the basis of distribution established by this article. 

10. All errors or omissions in the apportionment whether made by the Com- 
missioner of Education or by the school commissioner shall be corrected by the 
Commissioner of Education. Whenever a school district has been apportioned less 
money than that to which it is entitled the Commissioner of Education may allot 
to such district the balance to which it is in his judgment entitled and the same 
shall be paid from the contingent fund. Whenever a school district has been ap- 
portioned more money than that to which it is entitled the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation may, by an order under his hand, direct such moneys to be paid back into 
the hands of the county treasurer by him to be credited to the school fund, or he 
may deduct such amount from the next apportionment to be made to said district. 

11. The Commissioner of Education may also in his discretion excuse the 
default of a trustee or a board of education in employing a teacher not legally 
qualified, legalize the time so taught and authorize the payment of the salary of 
such teacher. 

Section 491-a. Additional apportionment of school moneys, i. In addition to 
any other apportionment or quota provided for in this article, to be applied to the 
payment of teachers' salaries, the commissioner of education shall apportion and 
pay annually, at the same time and in the same manner as public school moneys 
are apportioned and paid under this article, or prior thereto in the discretion of 
the commissioner of education, to each city school district and to each common or 
union free school district, from moneys appropriated for the support of common 
schools, for each teacher employed in the school or schools of such district who shall 
have taught during the period required by law, as follows: 

a. In cities of the first class containing a population of over one million, six 
hundred dollars. 

b. In cities of the first class containing a population of less than one million; 
in cities of the second class containing a population, according to the federal census 
of nineteen hundred and twenty, of over one hundred and fifty thousand, in a 
city school district in a city of the third class adjoining a city of the first class con- 
taining a population of less than one million; and in cities of the second and third 
classes in a county adjoining a city having a population of over one million, which 
county has a population of over three hundred thousand, five hundred and fifty 
dollars. 

c. In other cities of a population of fifty thousand or more and in union free 
school districts wholly situated within such cities, four hundred and fifty 
dollars. 

d. In other cities of a population of less than fifty thousand and in union 
free school districts authorized by law to have superintendents of schools, three 
hundred and fifty dollars. 

e. In other union free school districts maintaining academic departments, three 
hundred and fifty dollars. 

/. In each other school district employing more than one teacher, three hundred . 
dollars. 

g. In each other school district employing but one teacher and having an 
assessed valuation exceeding one hundred thousand dollars, two hundred dollars. 

h. In each other school district employing but one teacher and having an as- 
sessed valuation of one hundred thousand dollars or less, two hundred dollars, 
and in addition thereto the sum of three dollars for each entire thousand dollars 



44 SCHOOL SUPPORT 

that the assessed valuation of such district is less than one hundred thousand 
dollars. (Subdivision amended by L. 1921, ch. 584, in effect May 5, 1921). 

II. Missouri — 192 1 
Article II. Apportionment of Public School Fund. 

Section 11 179. Apportionment of public school fund. The state superintendent 
of public schools shall annually, before August 15th, apportion the public school 
fund applied for the benefit of the public schools among the different counties. 
This apportionment shall be made as follows: The state superintendent shall 
apportion, among the various counties, fifty dollars for each teacher, each princi- 
pal, and each supervisor actually employed for the entire term: Provided, that 
any teacher employed for less than one-half of the day shall not be counted; any 
teacher employed for less than one-half of the term for which school is maintained 
in the district shall not be counted ; for each teacher employed for more than one- 
half of the school term of the district and less than nine-tenths of the school term, 
he shall apportion only twenty-five dollars: Provided, also, that he shall appor- 
tion only twenty-five dollars for the teacher of any district in which the average 
attendance during the year preceding the apportionment has been less than fifteen 
pupils per day: Provided further, that he shall apportion one hundred dollars for 
each teacher whose salary is one thousand dollars or more per year: Provided, that 
he shall apportion fifty dollars for each teacher of any district that employs only 
two teachers, one of whom is colored and one white: Provided, that no teacher, 
principal, or supervisor, who is not paid by the school board from the public funds 
of the district shall be counted. After these teacher apportionments have been 
deducted the remainder of the state school fund to be apportioned shall be divided 
by the total number of days' attendance of all the pupils of the public schools of 
the state and the quotient thus obtained shall be called a pupil daily apportion- 
ment. The amount apportioned to each district shall be determined by multiply- 
ing this pupil daily apportionment by the total number of days' attendance of all 
pupils of each district: Provided, that the days' attendance on legal holidays and 
on days when the school is dismissed by order of the board to permit teachers to 
attend teachers' meetings shall be determined by counting as present each pupil 
who was present on the last day the school was in session before such intermission. 
The clerk of each school district shall make a report to the county clerk between 
June 15th and June 30th of each year, showing the number of teachers employed, 
the total number of days' attendance of all pupils, the length of the school term, 
the average attendance, the number of days taught by each teacher, the salary 
of each teacher, and any other information that the state superintendent may 
require. The aforesaid report shall be sworn to before a notary public or the 
county clerk. The county clerk shall make a summary of all these reports and 
forward to the state superintendent of public schools, on or before July 15th, a 
report showing the total number of teachers employed in the county and the total 
number of days' attendance of all pupils in the county, the number of teachers 
employed for the full term, and the number for half terms, and the number whose 
salary is one thousand dollars or more per year, and such other information as the 
state superintendent may require. Any district clerk, county clerk, or teacher, who 
shall knowingly furnish any false information in such reports, or neglect or refuse 
to make aforesaid report shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and punishable 
by a fine not exceeding five hundred dollars or imprisonment in the county jail for 
a term not exceeding six months or by both such fine and imprisonment. 



V. COURSES OF STUDY AND TEXTBOOKS 

I. The Development of the Course of Study Idea. 

A. Historical stages in development. 

B. Factors which have determined course of study changes. 

C. Present status of course of study idea in United States. 

D. Course of study and curriculum. 

II. The State and Courses of Study. 

A. Reasons for the state's responsibility in courses of study. 

B. Limitations to state's control of courses of study. 
I. County's responsibility for courses of study. 

C. Form of courses of study. 

D. Content of courses of study. 

III. Courses of Study and School Divisions. 

A. The function of courses of study for the several school divisions. 

B. Differences in form and content for different divisions. 

IV. Courses of Study and the Subject Matter of Instruction. 

A. Relation to minimum essentials. 

1. Determination of minimum essentials. 

a. Underlying theories. 

b. Work that has been done. 

c. Studies yet to be made. 

2. Determination of order of presentation. 

3. Determination of method of presentation. 

B. Relation to community needs. 

V. Courses of Study and Textbooks. 

A. Methods of selecting textbooks. 

1. By whom it should be done. 

2. When should selections be made? 

B. Methods of providing textbooks. 

1. By whom should textbooks be provided? 
a. Free textbooks. 

(1) By whom furnished? 

(2) For what divisions? 

2. State publication of textbooks. 

a. Preparation of special books for state. 

b. Use of rented plates. 

c. Present status of state publication. 

d. Argument for and against. 



46 COURSES OF STUDY AND TEXTBOOKS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bobbitt, Franklin. The Curriculum. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston 1918. 

2. Bonser, F. G. The Elementary School Curriculum. Macmillan Co. New 
York 1 92 1. 

3. Brown, J. F. State Publication of School Books. Macmillan Co. New York 

1915- 

4. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization, p. 12. 

5. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Div. iii and Chap. xxi. 

6. Dexter, Edwin Grant. History of Education in the United States. Chap, xi 
and XII. Macmillan Co. New York 1904. 

7. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. Topic: "Course of Study." 

8. Webster, W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational Adminis- 
tration. Chap. VI. 

9. 14th, 15th, i6th, and igth {Parts I) and i8th {Part II) Yearbooks of the National 
Society for the Study of Education. Public School Publishing Co. Blooming- 
ton, 111. 



COURSES OF STUDY AND TEXTBOOKS 47 

PROBLEM 

Criticise each of the seventh grade courses of study in geography copied 
below as to (i) content; (2) arrangement; (3) adaptability; (4) constructive 
helpfulness; (5) teacher limitation. Make proposals for any changes you 
would recommend. 

Example I 
Grade VII B Summary of Topics 

special World General 

Asia, Africa, Australia Peoples Migrations of peoples 

Asia, Africa, and Australia will be studied physiographically, followed by 
accounts of commerce, governments, religions, and other general social institu- 
tions. Develop characteristics of the peoples, their industries, customs, costumes, 
etc. Maps of each continent may be drawn, showing all the great general features. 

Trace the migrations of peoples, animals, plants, industries, throughout the 
world, and effects upon their development. Develop these matters particularly in 
relation to the United States. 

Natural Advance Geography, pp. 135-153, 57, 100, 105-108, 115-117, 135-136, 
146. 

Fryers Grammar School Geography, pp. 20-23, 33~6o, 161-189. 

Grade VII A Summary of Topics 

Special World General 

South America, North Teutonic and Latin Migrations of ideas 

America (except U. S.) Races 

South America in detail and North America in detail, except the United States, 
will be presented physiographically, followed by accounts of commerce, govern- 
ment, religion, and other general social institutions. Develop European relations, 
political and commercial. Emphasize Argentine, Chile, Mexico, and Canada, 
proceeding in this order. Discuss characteristics of the Latin peoples, their 
industries, customs, etc. Maps may be drawn showing all the great general 
features. 

Trace the migrations of institutions, customs, ideas, throughout the world. 
Show the Hispano-Latin origin of South American institutions as compared 
with the Anglo-Teutonic origin of those of our own country. Compare the 
republics of Latin America with those elsewhere. 

Natural Advance Geography, pp. 103-111, 93-100, 28-43. 

Frye's Grammar School Geography, pp. 17-19, 33-60 (for reference), 61-144 
(omitting parts referring to the United States in detail). 

Example II. Grade VII 

Approximate amount of time assigned to topics. Figures indicate weeks: United 
States, 10; Europe, 24; British Isles, 3; Holland, 2; Belgium, i; France, 2; Spain 
and Portugal, i ; Switzerland, 2; Germany, 3; Italy, 2; Russia, 2; Austria-Hungary, 
2; Balkan Peninsula, 2; Norway, Sweden, Denmark, 2. 

UNITED STATES 

Make the study largely causal. Group the study around live problems whenever 
possible. Develop the reasons for growth of cities, the occupations, the products, 



48 COURSES OF STUDY AND TEXTBOOKS 

through careful study of climatic and surface conditions. Study the political 
divisions and in connection with history show reasons for the same. 

There should be formal drill to fix the names of states, principal cities, leading 
occupations and products. 

Prohlems 

1. New England. Why is it a manufacturing and commercial section instead of 
agricultural? Why are the farms so small? Why has Boston a favorable posi- 
tion? What factors have led to the growth of cities? Why do many people 
spend their summers in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont? 

2. Middle Atlantic States. Why has New York grown? Why has the manufac- 
turing of iron and steel developed to such an extent? What natural factors 
attract foreigners to these states? Why is agriculture not highly developed? 

3. Southern States. How are the people of the New England and Middle Atlantic 
States dependent upon the Southern States? Why are the Southern States 
engaged in agriculture? What factors have led to the growth of cities? Why 
is not New Orleans as large as New York? 

4. The Central States. What have the rivers and lakes done for these states? 
Why is Chicago growing? On what has the development of these states 
depended? 

5. The Plateau States. Why are there so few people in this section? What might 
be done and is being done in these states to develop the country? For what 
do tourists visit these states? 

6. The Pacific States. What has led to the growth of cities in these states? Why 
do people go to these states? Why is San Francisco an indispensable city? 
Compare San Francisco with New York. Why is fruit raising an important 
industry? 

Important Facts 

Note. Under this head is a suggestive list of the important physical facts which 
the children should know about each of the sections included in the problems. 



General scheme of approach — It shall be the aim to work from the causal 
side so far as possible, determining the occupations and habits of the people, 
the products of the country, the reasons for the location and growth of cities, and 
the reasons for the study of climatic and physiographic conditions. Wherever 
possible a live problem shall be presented to the class, the solution of which shall 
bring out the important features in the geography of the country being studied. 
A formal drill should be given upon the facts concerning location, surface features, 
cities, occupations, and products which the student will be expected to know 
about any country. Correlate with history to clarify and illumine geography. 

Problems 

1. British Isles. Would people from "Old" England feel at home in New England? 
What has led to the growth of Great Britain? How has England held her 
colonies? Why has London grown to be next to the largest city in the world? 

2. Holland (The Netherlands) . A large part of Holland is below sea-level. How 
do more than five million people manage to live there? 

3. Belgium. Bring out the points of likeness and difference in Holland and 
Belgium. 



COURSES OF STUDY AND TEXTBOOKS 49 

4. France. Why do Americans go to France? France is farther north than New 
York. How can she raise silk worms and tropical fruits? Why has France 
so few sea-ports? Rainfall is very evenly distributed over France. Why? 
Why has France become a great nation? 

5. Spain and Portugal. Why has Spain declined in power? What natural factors 
favor her growth and what hinder? Why has Spain so few cities? What 
might be done in the peninsula to make it a better and more profitable place 
in which to live? 

6. Switzerland. How can three million people live in Switzerland? What fac- 
tors have favored the growth and development of the country? 

7. Germany. Why do Germans leave home? Why do Americans go to G2r- 
many? Why does Germany maintain such a large army? Why has Germany 
so many cities? 

8. Italy. Why is the location favorable? How can tropical fruits, silk worms, 
etc., be raised so far north? What difference would it make in Italy if the Alps 
were a low plain? Why do Italians leave Italy? 

9. Austria-Hungary. Why are there great extremes in temperature in the 
country? Why are there people of widely differing customs? Why so few 
cities? What does the Danube do for the country? 

10. Balkan Peninsula. Why is it an important position? Why are the people of 
mixed races? What value is the Danube to the Balkan states? Why are 
there few cities? Why do many people visit there? What is the importance 
of the location of Constantinople? 

11. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The countries have few inhabitants. Why? 
They have preserved their independence. How? The people are united. 
Why? Why do other nations covet them? On what do two million people 
depend for a living? Why do tourists visit there? Why so few cities? 

12. Russia. Why is Russia not the leading country in Europe since it is so large? 
Why so many climates? Why are Russia's rivers so valuable? Why has 
Russia few sea-ports? What factors should make her a great nation? Make 
frequent use of pictures and supplementary reading in the whole study. 

Important Facts 

Note. Under this head is a suggestive list of the important physical facts 
which the children should know about each of the sections included in the prob- 
lems. 

Bibliography 

1. Textbooks: Brigham & MacFarlane Geographies; Tarr and McMurry's 

Series; Dodge's Advanced Geography. 

2. References: Carpenter's Readers; Longman's Atlas; Rupert's Readers; 

Frey's Atlas; King's Readers; Black's Readers; Land of Pluck, Our Euro- 
pean Neighbors — Higgins; The Story of Nations — Putnam; Descriptive Geog- 
raphy — Herbertson; Stoddard's Travels, The Boy Travellers — Knox; Around 
the World With Eyes Wide Open — Tupper; Travels — Burton Holmes. 



VI A. TEACHERS— PREPARATION 

I. The Development of Teacher Training. 

A. In Europe — men and societies contributing. 

B. In United States — -early sponsors and causes of growth. 

C. Present status of teacher training in United States. 

D. State's responsibility for teacher training. 

1. Relation to city training schools. 

2. To private normal schools. 

II. Forms of Teacher Training in United States. 

A. On college or university level. 

1. Extent of provision. 

2. Special teacher training college. 

3. Relation to other schools. 

4. Present tendency. 

B. On normal school level (2 and 3 year course). 

1. Public and private. 

2. Enrolment. 

3. Function of these schools. 

4. Amount of specialization. 

5. Present tendencies. 

C. On secondary level (not over i year beyond high school). 
I. Extent. 2. Different methods. 3. Present tendency. 

III. The Content of Teacher Training Courses. 

A. Current practice and reasons for it. 

B. The principles governing content of teachertraining courses involving 

1. Responsibility for subject matter to be taught. 

2. Responsibility for general instruction in educational science. 

3. Relation of theory and practice. 

4. Differentiation for different divisions and subjects. 

5. Responsibility for giving professional outlook. 

C. Effect of length of course upon content. 

IV. Elements Affecting the Training of Teachers in United States. 

A. Economic. 

I. The salary situation. 2. Tenure. 3. Pensions. 

B. Social. 

I. Public esteem and prestige. 2. Teacher castes. 
3. Extra school responsibilities. 



TEACHERS — PREPARATION 5 1 

C. Educational. 

I. Time required. 2. Measurement of results. 

D. Increased public interest and information. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bagley, VV. C. The Professional Preparation of Teachers. Chap, iii, v 
and VII. Carnegie Foundation. New York 1920. 

2. CofTman, L. D. The Social Composition of the Teaching Population. Teach- 
ers College. New York 191 1. 

3. Colgrove, C. P. The Teacher and the School. Chap. 11. Chas. Scribner's 
Sons. New York 19 10. 

4. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. xii. 

5. Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States. Chap, ix and x. 

6. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Chap. xxii. 

7. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in 
the United States. Chap. xxi. 

8. Foght, H. W. Rural Teacher Preparation. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bui. 
No. 31, 1917. 

9. Gordy, J. P. Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United States. 
U. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, 1897. 

10. Judd, C. H. and Parker, S. C. Problems Involved in Standardizing State 
Normal Schools. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 12, 1916. 

11. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See "Pestalozzi," "Normal School," 
"Horace Mann," "F. W. Parker," etc. 

12. Parker, S. C. History of Modern Elementary Education. Chap, xill to 
XVIII inclusive. 

13. School and Society. "Professional Training of Teachers." Vol. 10, pp. 73-74 
(July 19, 1919). 

14. Sears, J. B. Classroom Organization and Control. Chap. xvii. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1918. 



52 



TEACHERS— PREPARATION 



PROBLEM 

Criticise the following course of study of a two-year normal course as to 
(i) subjects included; (2) amount of time given to each; (3) sequence; (4) 
attractiveness to prospective students; (5) opportunity for professional 
growth; (6) kind of product probably produced. 



First Year 



Second Year 



1st semester 


2nd semester 


1st semester 


2nd semester 


Introduction to 
Education 


General Psychology 

and Observation 

of Teaching 


Rural Problems or 

History of 

Education or 

Supervision 


Class Management 

and Professional 

Ethics 


Economics and 
Sociology 


Civics and 
State System 


Methods in His- 
tory or Geography 


Practice Teaching 

in City or Rural 

School 


Modern Literature 

and Methods in 

Teaching 


Review of 
Grammar 


Methods in Lan- 
guage or Grammar 


Dramatization and 
Story Telling or 
Oral Expression 


Physiology and 

Educational 

Hygiene 


Review of 
Arithmetic 


Methods in 

Arithmetic or 

Geography 


Agriculture or 
Nature Study 


Library Methods 


Music or Drawing 
or Domestic Art 


Music or Drawing 
or Domestic Art 


Music or Drawing 
or Domestic Art 



Note. All above classes meet five (5) times a week. Compulsory gymnasium. Optional extra 
work for credit in Folk Dancing, Play Supervision, Chorus, Glee Club, Orchestra. 



VI B. TEACHERS— CERTIFICATION 

I. The History of Teacher Certification. 

A. Var>'ing reasons why teachers have been certificated. 

B. Development of certification in United States. 

C. Present practices in different states. 

I. By whom issued. 2. Where valid. 3. How obtained. 
4. Variety of forms. 5. Repeal. 

n. Principles Governing the Certification of Teachers. 

A. The state's responsibility for certification. 

1. Relation to other certificating agencies. 

2. Standardization and interstate validity. 

3. Relation of employing and certificating powers. 

B. The purpose and function of certificates. 

1. Relation to welfare of schools and society. 

2. Evidence of 

a. Preparation, h. Experience, c. Success. 

3. Relation to particular kind of work to be done. 

C. Determining elements in granting certificates. 

1. General system of certification used. 

a. Values of "vertical," "horizontal," and other systems. 

2. Preparation. 

a. Amount for various grades of certificate. 
h. Where received. 
c. When received. 

3. Examination. 

c. Form. b. Content, c. When desirable. 

4. Fees and registrations. 

5. Validity and duration of various forms. 

6. Renewal and revocation of certificates. 

D. Means of enforcing certification law. 

1. Relation to minimum salary law. 

2. Relation to state supervision and standardization. 

3. Relation to teacher supply and training facilities. 

III. A Comprehensive State System of Certification. 

A. Method of securing such a system. 

B. Extent. 

I. Number of forms. 2. Prerequisites of each. 

C. Certificates as incentives to and evidences of professional growth. 



54 TEACHERS — CERTIFICATION 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. xiii. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Chap, xxiii. 

3. Hollister, H. A. The Administration of Education in a Democracy. Chap. x. 
Chas. Scribner's Sons. New York 1914. 

4. Public Education in Delaware (survey). Chap, vi and xi. 

5. Updegraff, H. C. Teachers^ Certificates Issued under General State Laws. 
U.S. Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 18, 1911. 

6. U. S. Bureau of Education, An Educational Study of Alabama. U. S. Bur. of 
Education. Bui. No. 41, 1919. Chap, xviii. 

7. U. S. Bureau of Education, The Educational System of South Dakota. U. S. 
Bur. of Education. Bui. No. 31, 1918. Chap. xvii. 

8. Virginia Public Schools — a Survey. Chap. ix. 



TEACHERS — CERTIFICATION 55 

PROBLEM 

Summary of Provisions in the Delaware School Code Relating to the 
Certification of Teachers. This Code was Approved, April 14, 1919 

Section i6g. The examination and certification of teachers shall be a state 
function after July i, 1920. Questions shall be prepared and papers graded by, 
or under the direction of, the State Commissioner of Education. 

Section 170. No person shall be employed as county superintendent of a 
special school district, assistant superintendent, supervisor, principal or teacher 
unless such person shall hold a certificate issued by the State Board of Education 
of the kind and grade required for the position. Old certificates in force at the time 
this section goes into effect, shall be exchanged for new ones of equal time and 
validity. 

Section 171. The following certificates shall hereafter be granted: 

1. A certificate in administration and supervision, valid for three years, renew- 
able for three year periods on evidence of successful experience and professional 
spirit, to graduates of a standard college or university, who have had one year of 
postgraduate work in a recognized university, including public school administra- 
tion, supervision and method of teaching, and who have had five years' experience 
as administrator or teacher. 

2. A certificate in elementary school supervision, issued and renewed as in 
(i) to teachers who have had two years in a standard normal school and two years 
in college, or four years in a standard college or normal school with special profes- 
sional preparation for elementary supervision and three years' experience in ele- 
mentary schools as supervisor or teacher. 

3. A special certificate in supervision, issued and renewed as in (i) required of 
special supervisors in physical training, music, fine and applied arts, manual and 
industrial training, agriculture, etc., to teachers who have had four years of 
training of college grade with specialization in the branch or branches to be taught, 
including the art of supervising and teaching, and who have had three years' experi- 
ence as a teacher or supervisor of their specialty. 

4. A superintendent of schools' certificate valid also as a high school principal's 
certificate is issued on the basis of the same qualifications as in (i) except that the 
professional courses must be in elementary and high school methods, supervision 
and administration. 

5. A high school principal's certificate, valid also in second class state aided 
high schools, is issued on the same terms as in (i) except that the professional 
work must be in high school methods, supervision and administration and two 
years' experience as a principal or teacher is required. 

6. A high and elementary school principal's certificate, required in all State 
aided high schools and in all schools rated as high schools by the Commissioner of 
Education, issued and renewed as in (i) on the basis of four years of college work 
with special professional training and one year of experience. 

7. A high school teacher's certificate in the regular academic studies issued and 
renewed as in (i) to four year college graduates who pursued continuously for two 
years during their college course at least two high school subjects and who have 
had work in aims and methods of secondary education and practice teaching. 

8. A high school teacher's certificate in the special branches of music, manual 
or industrial training, household arts, fine or applied arts, commercial branches, 



56 TEACHERS — CERTIFICATION 

physical training, agriculture, etc., issued and renewed as in (i) to persons who 
have had four years of work of college grade, and who have specialized in the 
branch or branches for which the certificate is issued, including the art of teaching 
their particular specialty. 

9. An elementary school principal's certificate issued and renewed as in (i) re- 
quired in all elementary schools having three or more teachers including the prin- 
cipal, may be issued to persons who have completed a two year normal school 
course and have had in addition not less than one half year of college or university 
work in elementary school methods, supervision and administration, and who 
have had three years' teaching experience. 

10. An elementary school teacher's certificate of the first grade issued and 
renewed as in (i) required in the elementary schools of all special school districts, 
may be issued to all persons who have completed a two year elementary profes- 
sional course in a standard college, normal school or university. A like certificate 
valid in the kindergarten and first three primary grades may be issued to persons 
of similar training whose professional training has been in kindergarten and pri- 
mary methods. Elementary school teachers' certificates of no other grade may he 
issued after July i, 1935. 

11. An elementary teacher's certificate of the second grade, valid for two years 
in the elementary schools of the state except in special school districts, may be 
issued to graduates of high schools having a four year course, or the equivalent, 
on examination in the common branches, history of Delaware, community civics, 
elementary science, hygiene and sanitation, music, drawing, handwork, physical 
training, the theory and practice of teaching and such other subjects as the State 
Board of Education may require. The applicant must have had at least six weeks 
of professional preparation in a standard institution and must have reached the 
age of 20. This certificate is not renewed on the basis of examination but on the 
basis of additional preparation and successful experience. This certificate will not 
be issued after July i, 1935. 

12. An elementary school teacher's certificate of the third grade, valid as in 
(11) may be issued to persons having less than a four year high school course on 
the conditions stated in (11). It is valid for one year, may not be issued a second 
time to the same person on examination, and may be renewed on the basis of 
additional preparation and successful experience. Elementary certificates of this 
grade will not be issued after July i, 1930. 

13. Special certificates of the second and third grades may be issued by county 
superintendents valid until the next State examination. The State Board of Edu- 
cation, in cooperation with the Federal Board of Vocational Education shall fix 
the standards for the certification of teachers in vocational schools and classes 
receiving federal aid. 

Section 1J2. A teacher may be suspended by a county or special district board 
of education on the recommendation of its superintendent of schools, for immor- 
ality, misconduct in office, incompetency, or wilful neglect of duty, and the cer- 
tificate may be revoked by the State Board of Education after a hearing of the 
case. 

Section 173. The State Commissioner of Education shall keep a complete rec- 
ord of the academic preparation, professional training and teaching experience of 
each person certificated, shall keep a complete record and file of all certificates in 
force. He shall make known to county superintendents and to superintendents of 
special school districts the names of teachers holding certificates who are unem- 



TEACHERS CERTIFICATION 57 

ployed, and no provisional certificates shall be issued when it is possible to employ 
a teacher holding a regular certificate. In employing elementary teachers prece- 
dence shall be given to those teachers holding the higher grades of certificates. 

Section 174. Principals' and teachers' certificates shall be of two classes: first 
and second. When issued by the State Board of Education they shall be of the 
second class. These certificates are then subject to classification by county and 
special district superintendents not less than once every two years. The basis of 
classification shall be: a scholarship; 6 executive ability; c personality; and d 
teaching power. Classifications shall be reported to the local board and the State 
Commissioner of Education on or before the first day of October of each year. 

In Article 9 of the Delaware Code a minimum salary is established for each grade 
of certificate. These minima are as follows: 

Provisional Third Grade $400.00 

Provisional Second Grade 450.00 

Third Grade 500.00 

Second Grade 600.00 

First Grade 750.00 

Elementary Principal's Certificate 950.00 

High School Teacher's 800.00 

High and Elementary School Principal's 1,000.00 

High School Principal's 1,200.00 

Superintendent of Schools 1,600.00 

These minima increase for additional successful experience. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Criticise this law relative to a standards set; h practicability; c enforce- 
ment; d effect on profession. Justify your criticism in each case. 

2. How much of this law is general enough to be adopted in other states? 
What states have conditions which would prevent the success of such a 
law? 

3. What effect would the enforcement of this law have upon the relation of 
the state to the normal and higher schools? 

4. What plan would you propose for interstate recognition of certificates? 

5. A recent school survey of the state of Virginia shows that less than one- 
half of the teachers of that state have received the equivalent of a high 
school education and that more than one-half are w'ithout any real pro- 
fessional training. On the basis of these facts would you consider it 
possible to apply at once the provisions of the Delaware certification law 
in V^irginia? 

6. Criticise the following statement which appeared in the Alabama State 
Survey (page 341): "Paradoxical as it may seem at first thought, the 
remedy for an ample supply of well prepared teachers should be sought 
in gradually increased professional requirements of all teachers." 



VI C. TEACHERS— SALARY, TENURE, AND PENSION 

I. The State and Teachers' Salaries. 

A. Relation of salaries paid to state system of education. 

1 . Supply of teachers. 

2. Preparation of teachers. 

3. Efficiency of schools. 

B. What state can do in salary control. 

1. Schedules for cities and counties. 

2. Form in which schedules are put. 

a. Minimal salaries, b. Increases, c. Maximal salaries. 

3. Flexibility and local adjustments. 

C. Elements which should govern salary control by a state. 
I. Economic. 2. Educational. 3. Social. 

D. State inequalities and Federal aid. 

II. The State and Teacher Tenure. 

A. Present situation in state legislation on tenure. 

B. Elements of tenure subject to state control. 

1 . Relation to certificate. 

2. Probationary period. 

3. Method of determining success. 

4. Degree of permanency in tenure. 

5. Method of removing teacher. 

C. Function of tenure laws. 

I. Advantages. Disadvantages. 3. Proposed solutions. 

III. The State and Teachers' Retirement Funds. 

A. Economic reasons for state pension laws. 

B. Present status of teacher pensions in the United States. 

C. Various methods of pensioning teachers. 
I. Success of each method tried. 

D. Principles involved in establishing teacher retirement funds. 

1. How and by whom is the fund supported? 

2. Conditions determining beneficiaries. 

3. Methods of control and adjustment. 

4. Conditions and methods of paying benefits. 

5. Determination of special provisions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I. Boykin, J. C. and King, Roberta. The Tangible Rewards of Teaching. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 16, 1914. 



TEACHERS — SALARY, TENURE, AND PENSION 59 

2. Carnegie Foundation. Seventh and Fifteenth Annual Reports. Carnegie 
Foundation. New York. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap, xiv 

4. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Chap. xxiv. 

5. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in 
the United States. Chap. xv. 

6. Evenden, E. S. "Essential Features of a State Salary Law." Educational 
Review, Vol. 60, No. 3 (October 1920). 

7. Evenden, E. S. Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules. N. E. A. Wash- 
ington, D. C. 1919. 

8. Furst, C. and Kandel, I. Pensions for Public School Teachers. Carnegie 
Foundation Bui. No. 12, 1918. 

9. Houseman, Ida E. A Teacher's Version of the Pierson Law (New Jersey). 
Published by author. Hoboken, N. J. 

10. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. Topics: "Salaries," "Pensions," 
"Tenure," etc. 

11. Prosser, C. A. The Teacher and Old Age. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside 
Textbook Series). Boston, 1913. 

12. Ryan, W. C. and King, Roberta. Stale Pension Systems. U. S. Bureau of 
Education Bui. No. 14, 1916. 

13. Strayer, G. D. and Engelhardt, N. L. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. i. 

Note. Special bibliography on teachers' salaries. U. S. Bureau of Education, Library Leaflet 
No. 8, December, 1919. 



60 TEACHERS SALARY, TENURE, AND PENSION 

PROBLEM 1 

Criticise the following provisions of the state laws of Iowa — establishing 
minimum teachers' wages based on certificate held. What changes or addi- 
tional legislation would you propose were you state superintendent in this 
state? 

School Laws of Iowa — 19 19 

Section 2778-a. Minimum teachers' wage — based on certificate grade. All 
teachers in the public schools of this state shall be paid for their services a mini- 
mum wage of not less than the amounts hereinafter set forth: 

1. A teacher who has completed a four-year college course and received a degree 
from an approved college and who is the holder of a state certificate or a state 
diploma shall receive a minimum wage of one hundred dollars ($100.00) per month 
until a successful teaching experience of two years in the public schools shall have 
been established. Thereafter, the minimum wage shall be one hundred and 
twenty dollars ($120.00) per month. 

2. A teacher who has completed a two-year course in education in a state 
normal school or other school whose diploma is recognized as an equivalent di- 
ploma by the state board of educational examiners and who shall be the holder 
of a state certificate, or who shall be the holder of a state certificate issued upon 
examination, shall receive a minimum wage of eighty dollars ($80.00) per month, 
until a successful teaching experience of two years in the public schools shall have 
been established. Thereafter the minimum wage shall be one hundred dollars 
($100.00) per month. 

3. A teacher who has completed a normal course in a normal training high 
school and who has had less than one year of successful teaching experience shall 
receive a minimum wage of sixty-five dollars ($65.00) per month. A teacher who 
has completed a normal course in a normal training high school and who shall 
have had one year of successful teaching experience, and a teacher holding a first 
grade uniform county certificate, shall receive a minimum wage of seventy-five 
($75.00) per month until a successful experience of two years in the public schools 
shall have been established; thereafter, the minimum wage shall be eighty dollars 
($80.00) per month. 

4. A teacher who is the holder of a second grade uniform county certificate shall 
receive a minimum wage of sixty dollars ($60.00) per month until a successful 
experience of one year's duration in the public schools shall have been established. 
Thereafter, the minimum wage shall be sixty-five ($65.00) per month. 

5. A teacher holding a third grade uniform county certificate shall receive a 
minimum wage of fifty dollars ($50.00) per month. 

Section 2. The holder of any certificate in order to become entitled to the in- 
crease in salary provided by this act because of successful teaching experience 
must file with the county superintendent his certificate, also proofs of one or two 
years of teaching experience as the law requires. If in the opinion of the county 
superintendent the proofs are satisfactory he shall endorse such findings on the 
back of said certificate and return the same to the holder thereof, and any cer- 
tificate properly endorsed by the county superintendent shall be evidence of 
qualification for the increase of salary provided by this act for such teaching ex- 
perience (38 G. A., Ch. 351 ; 35 G, A., ch. 249). 

PROBLEM 2 

The following are the provisions of the New Hampshire state pension law 
passed in 191 5. 



TEACHERS — SALARY, TENURE, AND PENSION 6l 

1. Are any principles, as developed in class, violated? 

2. Does it serve as an inducement to enter teaching? 

3. Would you change any part? What? Why? 

Section i. Any woman who, being on the 1st day of September 1915, or there- 
after, of the age of 55 years, and who for 30 years shall have been employed as a 
teacher in the public schools of this or some other state, 15 years of which employ- 
ment, including the 10 years preceding her ceasing to teach, shall have been in 
the schools of this State, and who shall have been retired, or shall voluntarily have 
retired, from active service, shall receive from the State a pension at the rate for 
the full year of 50 per cent of the average annual salary of such teacher for the five 
years last preceding her ceasing to teach. 

Section 2. Retired male teachers shall receive pensions upon the same terms 
as those set forth for women in this act: provided, however, That any man, to be 
entitled to receive the full pension, must be of the age of 60 years and must have 
taught 35 years. 

Section j. No person shall receive a pension unless he holds a State teacher's 
certificate. 

Section 4. Any retired teacher of the required age who shall before ceasing to 
teach have taught 15 years in this State, including 10 years immediately preceding 
such ceasing to teach, but shall not have taught in all for 35 years, in the case of a 
man, or 30 years in the case of a woman, shall be entitled to such proportion of the 
full pension herein provided as the actual total number of years taught bears to 35 
in the case of a man or to 30 in the case of a woman. 

Section 5. Any teacher forced to retire because of physical or mental disability 
before reaching the age of 60, if a man, or of 55 if a woman, shall, if otherwise en- 
titled to a pension under the provisions of this act, receive a pension based upon 
the proportion of the full pension which the total number of years taught, plus the 
number of years of enforced retirement, bears to 35 in the case of a man, or to 30 in 
the case of a woman, not exceeding, however, the full pension. 

Section 6. In computing the number of years of actual service of any teacher 
before retirement, no deduction shall be made for leaves of absence during sickness 
or disability, provided after such sickness or disability the teacher resumed teach- 
ing, but deduction shall be made for the time the teacher is engaged in some other 
gainful occupation. 

Section 7. The state superintendent of public instruction shall formulate rules 
and regulations for carrying into effect the provisions of this act. 

Section 8. The state superintendent of public instruction shall investigate all 
applications received for a pension under the provisions of this act and shall 
certify to the governor and council the names of the persons who are entitled to 
pensions in favor of said persons. 

Section q. Every pension shall terminate upon the death of the recipient, and 
the proportional part of the pension due at the time of such death shall be paid to 
the legal representative of the deceased. 

Section 10. All pensions granted or payable under the provisions of this act 
shall be and are hereby made exempt from levy upon execution and from attach- 
ment upon trustee process. 

Section 11. The sum of $10,000 is hereby appropriated for the fiscal year end- 
ing August 31, 1916, to carry out the provisions of this act. 

Section 12. This act shall take effect upon its passage. Approved April 21, 
1915- 



VI. D. TEACHERS— TRAINING IN SERVICE 

I. Through State Supervision, Inspection and Standardization. 

A. Various methods used and results of each. 

B. How results are made available to teachers. 

II. Through State and County Institutes and Teachers' Meetings. 

A. Development of teachers' institutes in United States. 
I. Purpose. 2. Length. 3. Instructors. 

4. By whom supported. 5. Kind of work done. 
6. Teacher attendance. 

B. Principles governing usefulness of institutes. 

1. Ways in which the teachers are to be benefited. 

2. Teacher participation in instruction. 

3. Forms of instruction most helpful. 
C. Organization of teachers' institutes. 

I. Frequency. 2. Departments. 

3. Groups included. 4. Size. 

5. Method of instruction. 

6. Specific problems and continuity of policy. 

III. Through Attendance at Summer Schools. 

A. Summer schools as means of specific help. 

B. Systems of subsidizing attendance at summer schools. 

IV. Through Correspondence Work with State Institutions. 

A. Purpose. 

1. Additional preparation. 

2. Assistance in a particular subject. 

3. Guidance for any special experiment. 

B. Responsibility of state department. 

V. Through Extension Teaching from State Institutions. 

A. Regular and composite courses. 

B. Growth in popularity and present tendencies. 

VI. Through Departments of Educational Service and State 
Supported Bureaus of Research. 

VII. Through Controlled Courses in Professional Reading. 

A. Popularity and limitations of "Reading Circles." 

B. Methods of encouraging teachers to participate. 



TEACHERS — TRAINING IN SERVICE 63 

VIII. Other Means of Encouraging Teacher Growth by the State. 

A. Scholarship funds. 

B. Teacher loan funds. 

C. Helping teachers. 

D. Demonstration teachers. 

E. Merit grades. 

F. Small group conferences. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Stale and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. xv. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Chap. xxv. 

3. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap. xvi. 

4. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Educatio7i. See "Institutes," etc. 

5. Pittman, M. S. Successful Teaching in Rural Schools. Index. American 
Book Co. New York 1922. 

6. Ruediger, W. C. Agencies for Improvement of Teachers in Service. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 3, 191 1. 

7. Sears, J. B. Classroom Organization and Control. Chap. xvi. 

8. Strayer and Engelhardt. Classroom Teacher. Chap. in. 



64 



TEACHERS- — TRAINING IN SERVICE 



PROBLEM 

Criticise the following program for a three day county institute. 
a program for such a meeting as you would like to have it. 



Prepare 



THURSDAY A. M. 

9.00 Opening Exercises — ^Invocation 

9.15 History 
10.10 Adv. Dept. Language 

Elem. Dept. Language Round Table 
1 1. 10 Securing Cooperation of School Patrons 



A City Minister 
Asst. State Superintendent 
City Supt. No. I 
A Primary Teacher 
City Supt. No. 2 



1.30 
145 

2.35 

3-25 



THURSDAY P. M. 

Opening Exercises — Group singing 
The Condition and Treatment of De- 
pendent and Delinquent Children 
Adv. Dept. Reading — Round Table 
Elem. Dept. Phonetics and Reading 
Picture Study 



A Boys' and Girls' Aid 

Society Visitor 
City Supt. No. 3 
Asst. St. Supt. 
Asst. St. Supt. 



FRIDAY A. M. 

9.00 Opening Exercises — Invocation 

9.15 Vocational Guidance 

10.10 Adv. Dept. Making Agriculture Interest- 
ing Elem. Dept. Numbers 
1 1. 10 Individuality in the School Room 



A City Minister 
An Ed. Journal Editor 
An Ed. Journal Editor 
A Primary Supervisor 
A College Teacher 



FRIDAY p. M. 



1.30 Opening Exercises 
1 .45 The Service Rendered by the Teacher 
2 35 Adv. Dept. Making Geog. Interesting 
Elem. Dept. Reading 



Local H. S. Glee Club 
A College Teacher 
A College Teacher 
A Primary Supervisor 



FRIDAY EVENING 8.00 



Instrumental Solo 

The Psychology of Failure 

Instrumental Duet 

Our Educational Investment 



A City Musician 
A College Teacher 
Two High School Girls 
An Ed. Journal Editor 



SATtTRDAY A. M. 



9.00 Opening Exercises — Invocation 
9.15 The Test of the Teacher 

10.10 Adv. Dept. English Classes . 
Elem. Dept. Spelling 

II. 10 Types of Teaching 



A City Minister 

An Ed. Journal Editor 

Asst. St. Supt. 

A Primary Supervisor 

A College Teacher 



TEACHERS — TRAINING IN SERVICE 



65 



SATURDAY P. M. 

1.30 Opening Exercises — Group Singing 

1 .45 Descriptive Travel in Language and Geog. 

2.35 Adv. Dept. Adolescence and Discipline 

Elem. Dept. — Activity and Primary Edu- 

tion 
3.25 Athletics, School Activities and Student 
Organizations 



An Ed. Journal Editor 
A College Teacher 

A Primary Supervisor 

An Ed. Journal Editor 



Note. Law requires teachers to attend at least sixteen hours. 



VII A. PUPILS— SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY 

ATTENDANCE 

I. The Form and Function of the School Census. 

A. The history of the school census in the United States. 

1 . Reasons for taking. 

2. Changes in method. v 

3. Present status for country and several states. 

B. Relation of school census to state education. 
I . Uses made by state of census facts. 

a. In distribution of funds. 

b. In depicting the educational conditions of the state. 

c. In developing state programs of education. 

C. Method of maintaining a state continuing census. 

1. Support. 

2. Organization of staff. 

3. Facts obtained. 

4. Methods of recording. 

II. Compulsory Attendance and State Education. 

A. Relation of compulsory education to public education. 
I. Development of idea. 

a. Oppositions, b. Early laws. c. Degree of enforcement. 

B. Relation of compulsory education to child labor. 

1. History of child labor legislation. 

2. Determining factors. 

a. Industrial, b. Educational, c. Social. 

3. Present status of child labor laws. 
a. Extent of enforcement. 

C. State and county organization of compulsory education. 

1. Legal standards — length of term, age. 

2. Officials — ^number, qualifications, salary. 

3. Necessary records — ^where and by whom kept. 

4. Method of enforcing — notifications, reports. 

5. Penalties — ^fines, parental homes. 

6. Follow-up system for workers and for industrial guidance. 

D. Compulsory education and work certificates. 

1 . Conditions for granting. 

2. Constant oversight. 

3. State subsidy for homes where support by children is necessary. 

E. Compulsory education and private and parochial schools. 



PUPILS — SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 67 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Eiucationa' Reorganization. Chap, xvi, 

2. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Chap. xxvi. 

3. Dutton, S. T. and Sneddon, David. Admiuistration of Public Education in 
the United States. Chap, xxvii. 

4. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. Index. 

5. Nudd, Howard W. Report on Compulsory Education in Philadelphia and New 
York City. Public Education Association of the City of New York. New 
York 1913. 

6. U. S. Bureau of Education. Compulsory Attendance. Bui. No. 2, 1914. See 
Bibliography. 



68 



PUPILS SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 



PROBLEM 1 



Complete the organization outline which is given here, showing what you 
consider the best organization of the state force for school census and com- 
pulsory attendance between the state department and the pupils. 



State Board of Bdueation 



STATE COMMISSIONER O F EDUCATIOK 

1 









1 








State Derartment of Education 1 


Library 
Museum 

and 
Extension 


School 
Construc- 
tion and 
Sanita- 
tion 


Rural Ele- 
mentary 
Secondary 
Special 


Indus- 
trial and 
Voca- 
t lonal 


CHILD 
WELFARE 


Informa- 
tion and 
Edi- 
torial 


Business 
Legal and 
Statis- 
tical 



School Census 

and Compulsory 

Attendance 



Pupil Health 

and Physical 

Educat ion 



Teachers 
(Regular & Special) 



1 , 

Pupils I 



PUPILS — SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 69 

PROBLEM 2 

What changes would you recommend in the following set of laws of Mas- 
sachusetts governing "Truant Schools" in order to make these schools a more 
constructive part of the educational system of the state? 

Section i. The county commissioners of each county shall maintain either 
separately or jointly with the commissioners of other counties as hereafter pro- 
vided, in a suitable place, not at or near a penal institution, a truant school for the 
instruction and training of children committed thereto as habitual truants, absen- 
tees, or school offenders. The county commissioners of two or more counties may, 
at the expense of said counties, establish and maintain a union truant school 
which shall be organized and controlled by the chairman of the county commis- 
sioners of said counties. 

Section 2. County truant schools shall be subject to visitation by the board 
of education and by the State board of charity, and said boards shall report thereon 
annually to the general court. 

Section 3. A child between 7 and 14 years of age who willfully and habitually 
absents himself from school contrary to the provisions of section I of chapter 
44 shall be deemed to be an habitual truant, and unless placed on probation as 
provided in section 7 of this chapter, may, upon complaint by a truant officer and 
conviction thereof, if a boy, be committed to a county truant school, and, if a girl, 
to the State industrial school for girls; but if the girl is under 12 years of age she 
shall be committed to the custody of the State board of charity, if they so request, 
for not more than two years. 

Section 4. A child between 7 and 16 years of age who may be found wandering 
about in the streets or public places of any city or town, having no lawful occupa- 
tion, habitually not attending school, and growing up in idleness and ignorance, 
shall ba deemed to be an habitual absentee, and, unless placed on probation as 
provided in section 7, may, upon complaint . . . (etc. — same as for Section 3). 

Section 5. A child under 14 years of age who persistently violates the reason- 
able regulations of the school which he attends, or otherwise persistently misbe- 
haves therein, so as to render himself a fit subject for exclusion therefrom, shall be 
deemed to be an habitual school offender, and unless placed on probation as pro- 
vided in section 7, may, upon complaint . . . (etc. — same as for Sec. 3). 

Section 6. The court or magistrate by whom a child has been committed to a 
county truant school may make an order relative to the payment by his parents 
to the county of the cost of his support while in said school, and may from time 
to time revise and alter such order or make a new order as the circumstances of 
the parents may justify. 

Section 7. A court or magistrate by whom a child has been convicted of an 
offense under the provisions of this chapter may place such a child on probation 
under the oversight of a truant officer of the city or town in which the child resides, 
or of a probation officer of said court, for such period and upon such conditions as 
said court or magistrate may deem best; and if, within such period, the child vio- 
lates the conditions of his probation, such truant officer or probation officer may, 
without warrant or other process, take the child before the court, and the court 
may thereupon sentence him or may make any other lawful disposition of the case. 

Section 8. County commissioners, if they think it will be for the best interest 
of any child who has been committed to a county truant school under their control. 



70 PUPILS — SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 

after notice and an opportunity to be heard has been given to the school committee 
of the city or town from which such child was committed to said school, may per- 
mit him to be at liberty upon such conditions as said commissioners may deem 
best, or with the approval of the court which imposed the sentence, they may dis- 
charge him from said school ; and upon such parole or discharge they shall make an 
entry upon their records of the name of such child, the date of parole or discharge 
and the reason therefor; and a copy of such record shall be transmitted to the court 
or magistrate by whom such child was committed and to the school committee of 
the city or town from which he was committed. If such child, in the opinion of 
said commissioners, violates the conditions of his parole at any time previous to 
the expiration of the term for which he was committed to said school, such parole 
may be revoked. A child who has been committed to a county truant school, 
whether he be confined at the county truant school or on parole as provided in this 
section, shall be discharged from the custody and care of such school upon his be- 
coming 1 6 years of age. 

Section Q. If a near relation of a child who is confined on a sentence as an 
habitual truant, habitual absentee, or habitual school offender dies or is seriously 
ill, any member of the board of trustees or county commissioners having charge 
of the institution may order such child to be released for a specified time, either 
with or without the custody of the superintendent or other officer, and may revoke, 
extend, or otherwise modify such order. 

Section lo. An inmate of a county truant school or of the parental school of 
the city of Boston who persistently violates the reasonable regulations thereof, or 
is guilty of indecent or immoral conduct, or otherwise grossly misbehaves, so as to 
render himself an unfit subject for retention therein, may, upon complaint by the 
officer in control of said school and conviction thereof, if under 15 years of age, be 
committed to the Lyman School for Boys; if over 15 years of age, to the Massa- 
chusetts Reformatory. If a girl who is committed to the custody of the State 
board of charity under section 3, 4, or 5 of this chapter proves unmanageable in a 
private family, she may be committed by the State board of charity to the State 
industrial school for girls. 

Section 11. Police, district, and municipal courts and trial justices shall have 
jurisdiction of offenses arising under the provisions of section i of chapter 44 and 
under the provisions of this chapter. A summons or warrant issued by such court 
or justice may be served, at the discretion of the court or magistrate, by a truant 
officer or by any officer qualified to serve criminal process. 

Section 12. The school committee of every city and town shall appoint and 
fix the compensation of one or more truant officers, who may be either male or 
female as the committee may decide, and shall make regulations for their govern- 
ment. Truant officers shall not receive fees for their services. The school com- 
mittee of two or more cities or towns may employ the same truant officers. 

Section ij. Truant officers shall inquire into all cases arising under the provi- 
sions of sections i and 6 of chapter 44 and sections 3, 4, and 5 of this chapter, and 
may make complaints and serve legal processes issued under the provisions of this 
chapter. They shall have the oversight of children placed on probation under the 
provisions of section 7. A truant officer may apprehend and take to school, with- 
out warrant, any truant or absentee found wandering about in the streets or public 
places thereof. 



VII B. PUPILS— HEALTH SUPERVISION AND SPECIAL 

CLASSES 

I. The State and School Health and Sanitation. 

A. State responsibility for health and sanitation. 

1 . Growth of the idea in United States. 

2. Relation to compulsory^ education. 

B. The size of the school health problem. 

1. Statistics from schools. 

2. Findings from army examinations. 

3. Cost of preventable absences. 

C. Present status and organization of health supervision. 
I. State laws. 2. Cities maintaining. 

3. Extent of supervision. 4. Rate of increase in provision. 

D. Different lines of health supervision undertaken by the state. 

1. Instructional and extension service. 

2. State and county medical inspection and nurse service. 

3. Demonstrations and exhibits. 

4. Supervised play and physical education program. 

5. State campaigns for social hygiene and community sanitation. 

6. Desirable state records and reports. 

7. Other forms of state health service. 

II. The State and Provisions for Special Groups. 

A. State's responsibility for all classes of children. 

1. Slow acceptance of responsibility. 

2. States that have made beginnings in this work. 

B. State organization and support for special classes. 

1. Methods of facilitating the introduction of special classes. 

2. Methods of supervision and control. 

3. Force necessany- to operate system. 

C. Forms of special education encouraged and subsidized b>- the state. 

1. For physically and mentally handicapped. 

2. For juvenile delinquents. 

3. Industrial and vocational schools. 

4. Americanization and civic education. 

5. Adult and community courses. 

6. Other forms of special education conducted by states. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I. Ayres, L. P., Williams, J. P., and Wood, T. D. Healthful Schools. Chan, xi f. 
Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1918. 



72 PUPILS — HEALTH SUPERVISION AND SPECIAL CLASSES 

2. Cornell, W. E. Health and Medical Inspection of School Children. Part i. 
F. A. Davis & Co. Philadelphia, Pa. 1913. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap, x and 
XVI. 

4. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Chap, xxvii. 

5. Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene. Macmillan Co. New York. 

6. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in 
the United States. Chap, xxii-xxvi, inclusive. 

7. Gulick, Halsey and Ayres. Medical Inspection of Schools. Russell Sage 
Foundation. New York 1909. 

8. Hoag, E. P. Organized Health Work in Schools. Table of Contents. U. S. 
Bureau of Education Bui. No. 44. 1914. 

9. Hoag, E. P. and Terman, L. M. Health Work in the Schools. Houghton MifHin 
Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1914. 

10. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See topics. 

11. Rapeer, L. W. Educational Hygiene. Table of Contents. Chas. Scribner's 
Sons. New York 1915. 

12. Rapeer, L. W. School Health Administration. Table of Contents. Teachers 
College. New York 1913. 

13. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. XI. 

14. Terman, L. M. The Hygiene of the School Child. Houghton Mifflin Co. 
(Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1914. 

Note. Special bibliographies are available from the U. S. Bureau of Education on several of these 
topics. 



PUPILS — HEALTH SUPERVISION AND SPECIAL CLASSES 73 

PROBLEM 

The state of New Jersey has the following suggested rules for local boards 
of education governing medical inspection. 

1. The medical inspector shall use the same care and skill in examining pupils 
under his charge as he would in the case of private patients. 

2. The following schedule of minimum inspections shall be observed: Rural 
districts, scattered schoolhouses, one-room schoolhouses — each school at least 
twice a month. 

Villages and small towns, and schoolhouses containing more than one room- 
each school at least three times a month. 

Towns and cities — at the discretion of the local boards and medical examiners, 
but not less than three times a week. 

3. The medical inspector shall during the first week of school make a pre- 
liminary inspection of each room for the detection of evident cases of exclusion. 
He shall thereafter make from time to time a routine examination of all pupils 
from the lowest grade to the highest. These examinations should be completed 
not later than April 1st of the school year, and shall include: 

a. Eyes — For far and nearsightedness and the condition of the eyelids. 

b. Ears — For acuteness of hearing and presence or absence of discharges. 

c. Throat — Condition of tonsils. Possible adenoids. 

d. Teeth — Condition and care. 

e. Evident defects which would hinder the pupil's progress. 

/. Contagious, infectious or communicable diseases or an^' condition which 
makes the pupil a source of danger to others. 
g. General health. 

4. Whenever possible, it is advised that the usual records be made of height, 
weight and chest measurements, and that examinations be made of heart and 
lungs. These examinations shall be made by the medical inspector him- 
self. 

Emergency calls shall be responded to as quickly as possible. 

5. It shall be the duty of the medical inspector to report immediately to the 
principal or teacher in charge any pupil whom he may suspect of having any 
form of contagious, infectious or communicable disease. The principal or teacher 
shall send such pupil home at once with a written statement signed by the medical 
inspector, giving the nature of the disease suspected, and requesting that the 
pupil be seen by the family physician. The medical inspector shall not attend 
such cases professionally unless he is the regular medical attendant of the family. 
This rule covers cases of contagious diseases of the skin and scalp, and purulent 
discharges from eyes, nose and ears, as well as all diseases of an infectious or 
contagious nature. It also includes cases of pediculosis or other vermin. Special 
examinations shall be made by the medical inspector at the request of the prin- 
cipal or teacher in charge. Medical inspectors shall notify parents of physical 
defects which interfere with the normal progress of the child, with the recom- 
mendation that the family physician, dentist or specialist be consulted. 

6. Pupils excluded from school by the direction of the medical inspector shall 
not be readmitted without a written certificate of good health from their family 
physician or some other regularly qualified physician who has examined or 
treated them. 



74 PUPILS — HEALTH SUPERVISION AND SPECIAL CLASSES 

7. The medical inspector shall give instructions each year to teachers on the 
following subjects: 

a. The prevention and detection of communicable diseases. 

b. School hygiene and sanitation. 

c. First aid to the injured. 

8. The medical inspector shall perform such other duties as are required by 
section 175 of the school law, relating to vaccination; section 180, relating to 
the examination of children in special classes; and sections 219, 221 and 223 of 
the compulsory school law, relating to examinations for school exemption certifi- 
cates and the issuing of them. 

9. The medical inspector shall examine regularly the sanitary conditions of all 
school properties in his district and keep the Board of Education informed thereof. 
Any special work required of the medical inspector by the local Board of Educa- 
tion, such as frequent extra visits, vaccinations or fumigations, shall be arranged 
for by mutual agreement. 

10. The medical inspector shall be especially careful to comply with all rules 
and regulations of the local and State Boards of Health, and shall promptly 
notify the proper authorities of all cases of contagious or infectious diseases as 
if occurring in his private practice. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Are any of the elements matters for local instead of state regulations? 

2. Which elements would you omit? Why? 

3. What elements would you add? Why? 



VIII. THE SCHOOL PLANT AND THE STATE 

I. The Relation of the School Plant to Education. 

A. Development of schoolhouse construction. 

1. Factors which have contributed to changes. 

2. Limitations which buildings put upon educational work. 

3. Present building situations in the United States. 

B. The state's responsibility for school buildings. 

1. Support. 

2. Approval of plans. 

3. Inspection and condemnation of buildings. 

II. School Building Standards. 

A. The development of standards for school buildings. 

1. Items standardized. 

2. Methods of standardization. 

3. Standards for ditiferent types of schools. 

B. Score cards for school buildings. 

I. Their development. 2. Advantages. 3. Uses. 

III. The Care of the School Plant. 

A. Standards of upkeep and sanitation. 

I. Cleaning. 2. Disinfecting. 3. Decorating. 

B. The school janitor. 

I. Qualifications. 2. Certification. 3. Duties. 

4. Salary. 5. Responsibilities. 

IV. The Maximum Use of the School Plant. 

A. Provisions which schools should have in order to permit increased 

use of plant. 

B. Methods of organizing and controlling these activities. 

V. The State and School Building Programs. 

A. Advantages of building programs extending over a period of years. 

B. Method of determining such a program. 

C. Ways of administering such a program. 

D. Methods whereby the state may assist. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Ayres, Williams and Wood. Healthful Schools. Chap. l-x. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap. ix. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Chap. XIX. 



76 THE SCHOOL PLANT AND THE STATE 

4. Dresslar, F. B. American Schoolhouses. U. S.Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 
5- 1910- 

5. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in 
the United States. Chap xi and xii. 

6. Engelhardt, N. L. A School Building Program for Cities. Part 11. Teachers 
College. New York 19 18. 

7. Hart, F. W. A State School Building Code. C. F. Williams and Son. Albany, 
N. Y. 1922. 

8. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. xiv. 

9. Strayer and Engelhardt. Score Cards and Standards for City and Rural Schools. 
Teachers College. New York 1920. 

10. Strayer, Engelhardt and Hart. Schoolhousing Series. C. F. Williams & Son. 
Albany, N. Y. 1921. 

11. Strayer, Engelhardt and Hart, Delaware School Building Survey. Service 
Citizens, Wilmington, Del. 1919. 

12. St. Paul, Baltimore, Omaha, Nassau County, Paterson and other surveys for 
building studies and standards. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT AND THE STATE 
PROBLEM 



77 



Dinina 'Roorn 



20 xia 



Q [—1 futl Room 

"Id 



20 / 23 



TTanual TRoinin<j 
20 X t5 

DDDni 
DDDD 




Class Ro om I |D 

30' y ZS' 



^ CUssRooyn []° 
3o'x 25 



is'k io' 



Cort'idor ^T" Coat 'Room 

I5\ lo' 




From a state bulletin on School Plans. 

What changes in the above plan for a two-teacher rural school should be 
recommended and which insisted upon by the state department of education 
before the plans are approved? 



PART II 

CITY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 
Second Semester's Work 



OUTLINE 

PAGE 



SECTION 

I. City School Systems— Their Deyelopment 8i 

IT. Administration of City School Districts 88 

III. Publicity of City School Systems 94 

IV. Organization 99 

A. City School Educational Staff 99 

B. Courses of Study 102 

C. City School Divisions io5 

V. Supervision ^°° 

A. Relation to Administration 108 

B. Relation to Achievement of Children ._ 113 

C. Relation to Training Teachers in Service .... 116 

VI. StalT • • • ^^° 

A. Preparation, Selection, Tenure and Promotion . . 120 

B. Salaries and Retirement Funds 124 

VII. Pupils 129 

A. School Census and Compulsory Attendance ... 129 

B. Classification and Progress of Children I33 

C. School Health Service 136 

D. Educational Tests and Special Classes 139 

E. Supplementary and Extra School Education 143 
VIII. Materials— Textbooks, Supplies, and Instructional 

Equipment ^48 

IX. Accounting ^53 

A. Pupils and StafT ^53 

B. Financial Records and Accounts 156 

X. Plant— The City School Plant and Its Care 160 

XI. Growth— Education and School Building Programs . 163 



I. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS— THEIR DEVELOPMENT 

I. The Development of Colonial and State Government in the 
United States. 
A. Development of national unity and state autonomy. 

II. The Growth of Cities in the United States. 

A. Periods of fluctuating development. 

I. Reasons for changes. 2. Fluctuations in single cities. 

B. Reasons for general growth of urban population. 

C. Present factors conditioning the growth of cities. 

III. The Development of City Government. 

A. Successive forms of government. 

B. Present tendencies in city administration. 

IV. The Development of City School Systems. 

A. Changes in controlling authority. 

B. Conser\'atism in control of school affairs of cities. 
I. Reasons for. 2. Effects of. 

C. Recent tendency toward centralization in school matters. 

V. Relation of Schools to Various City Departments. 

A. Historical development of relation. 

I. New York City as an illustration. 

B. Fiscal independence of school district. 

1 . The case in favor of fiscal dependence. 

2. The case in favor of fiscal independence. 

3. Present practices. 

C. Relation to other city departments. 

1 . Departments having authority over the schools for any [larticular 
function. 

2. Departments which act in advisory capacity. 

3. Departments which cooperate with schools in some forms of 
public service. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States. Chap, i-iv, inclu- 
sive. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 19 19. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Revised Edition. Chap, 
i-vii, inclusive. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 
1922. 

3. Engelhardt, N. L. A School Building Program for Cities. Part i. Teachers 
College. New York 1918. 



82 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS — THEIR DEVELOPMENT 

4. Fairlie, John A. Local Government in Counties, etc. Index. The Century 
Co. New York 1906. 

5. Frasier, G. W. The Control of City School Finances. Bruce PubHshing Co. 
Milwaukee, Wis. 1922. 

6. Goodnow, F. J. City Government in the United States. Index. The Century 
Co. New York 19 10. 

7. Goodnow, F. J. and Bates, F. G. Municipal Government. The Century Co. 
New York 1919. 

8. Goodnow, F. J. and Howe, F. C. Report on the Organization, Status and Pro- 
cedure of the Department of Education, City of New York. 1 9 1 3 . 

9. McGaughy, J. R. Municipal Control of City Schools. In preparation. 

10. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. 11, p. 16. Macmillan Co. 
New York 1914. 

11. Moore, E. C. How New York City Administers Its Schools. World Book 
Co. Yonkers, N. Y. 1913. 

12. Munro, W. B. The Government of American Cities. Index. Macmillan Co. 
New York 1919. 

13. Strayer, G. D. Report No. j of National Committee for Chamber of Commerce 
in Co-operation with the Public Schools. American City Bureau. New York 
192 1. 

14. Suzzallo, Henry. Rise of Local School Supervision in Massachusetts. Teach- 
ers College. New York 1907. 

15. Webster, W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational Admin- 
istration. Columbia University. New York 1897. 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS — THEIR DEVELOPMENT 83 

PROBLEM 1 

Relation of Schools to Other City Departments 

The cit}' of Houston, Texas, is governed by means of a city commission. 
The commission consists of a mayor and four aldermen. These five are known 
as commissioners. They are elected for the term of two years and are the 
only elective officers in the city. The city charter provides only for the 
additional office of auditor and this officer is a])p()inted by the commission. 
Aside from this position, all other city offices are created and the officials 
to fill them are appointed by the commission. 

The commissioners are elected from the city at large, are salaried men, and 
are expected to devote their entire time to the work of the city. The work of 
the city is divided into four parts, viz., finances, police, water and light, 
sewers and drainage, and each part is made the especial care of one commis- 
sioner. The commission also appoints the school board which is simply one 
department of the city. It is under the jurisdiction of the entire commission. 

Members of the school board are appointed for a term of two years. There 
are seven members, four being appointed one year and three the next. The 
board has complete charge of the internal affairs of the entire school system. 
The administration of the schools is in the hands of a city superintendent 
elected by the board of education. 

Under the commission form of government all finances pass through the 
hands of the commission. There is no special school tax. The commission 
once a year fixes the tax rate which covers all operations of the city, including 
those of the schools. It is the duty of the city school board, under the charter, 
to make out in February of each year an estimate of the money that will be 
needed from the city for the maintenance of the schools, for the year beginning 
March first. 

The board of education does most of its work by means of committees which 
have almost full power in the matters referred to them. Committee reports 
are usually adopted as a whole. ^ 

QUESTIONS 

1. What elements, in your judgment, would tend to make this system a 
success from the point of view of efficient educational administration? 
Justify your answers. 

2. What phases do you think would handicap a city superintendent? List 
them. 

3. Why has this organization not been more widely adopted in this country? 

' Extracts from "City Schools under the Commission Form of Government." From the Edu- 
cational Review, April, 1909. By permission of the publishers, Doubleday, Page and Company. 



84 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS — THEIR DEVELOPMENT 

PROBLEM 2 

Proposed Article on Education for City Charter of Atlanta, Georgia' 

Read the following proposed sections of a city charter covering the relation 
of the city to the public school system. 

1 . Which proposals are matters of general practice and which are in advance 
of current practice? 

2. Which provisions would need to be changed if the city changed to the 
commission form of government? 

3. List the elements and relationships provided in this charter which you 
think are particularly desirable. 

4. List any you would change and give reasons. 

THE BOARD OF EDUCATION 

Art. Sec. The City of Atlanta, including the territory now 

within its limits or which may in the future be included by any change thereof, 
shall be and constitute a single school district, shall be a body corporate, and the 
administration and government of public schools and public school property 
therein shall be vested in a board of five members to be called and known as the 
"Board of Education" of the City of Atlanta. Such Board of Education shall, 
by and in said name sue and be sued, purchase, receive, hold and sell property, 
do all things necessary to accomplish the purpose for the attainment of which 
such school district is organized, and succeed to all the property, rights and pri- 
vileges, of whatever kind or nature, granted and belonging to any previous cor- 
poration. Board of Directors, or city, or officers thereof, authorized or empowered 
by any enactment of the general assembly of the state to do anything in reference 
to public education: Provided that all pending suits to which any previous cor- 
poration, Board of Directors, or city, or officers thereof, is a party, may be pro- 
secuted to an end in the name of such party. All titles to property previously 
granted to such city by the United States, or by the state of Georgia for school 
purposes, and the title to all school lands and other property of every kind shall 
be vested in the Board of Education established by this charter. 

Sec. ' Such Board of Education shall have general and supervising control, 

government, and management of the public schools and the public school property 
in such city, shall exercise generally all powers in the administration of the public 
school system therein, appoint such officers, agents, and employees as it may 
deem necessary and proper, and fix their compensation, shall have power to fix 
the time of its meetings, to make, amend and repeal rules and by-laws for its 
meetings and proceedings, for the government, regulation and management of 
the public schools and school property in such city, for the transaction of its 
business, for the examination, qualification, and employment of teachers, which 
rules and by-laws shall be binding on such Board of Education and all parties 
dealing with it until formally repealed; to loan its funds, and to levy such taxes as 
may be necessary for the support of said school system, and to purchase and hold 
all property, real and personal, deemed by it necessary for the purposes of public 
education, or for the investment of public school funds, to build and construct 
improvements for such purposes, and to sell the same. 

1 Proposed by G. D, Strayer, Director of the Atlanta Survey, 1922. 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM— THEIR DEVELOPMENT 85 

Sec. The members of such Board of Education shall be elected from such 

city at large at a special school election to be held the second Tuesday in April 
each second year after this charter shall become effective. The members of the 
Board of Education shall be at least thirty years of age and shall have been citizens 
and residents of the city for at least three years immediately preceding their 
election. They shall not hold office except that of notary public, in such city or 
State, nor be interested in any contract with or claim against the Board, either 
directly or indirectly. Each member of such Board shall before assuming the 

duties of his office take oath before a judge 

court or justice of the peace of such city, which oath shall be kept on record in 
such Board, that he possesses all of the qualifications by this article required, 
and that he or she will not while serving as a member of such Board become 
interested in any contract with or claim against said Board, directly or indirectly, 
or as agent or employee of any individual, firm or corporation which is so inter- 
ested, and that he or she will not be influenced during his or her term of office by 
any consideration except that of merit and fitness in the appointment of officers 
and in the engagement of employees. No compensation shall be paid to the 
members of the Board, but they shall be exempt from jury duty and from service 
as election officers during their term of office. 

Sec. The members of such Board of Education shall be elected by the 

qualified voters of such city at large at an election to be held the second Tuesday 
in April after which this charter becomes effective and on the second Tuesday in 
April each second year following. They shall serve for six years except as is herein- 
after provided for the five members elected at the first school election. At said 
first school election following the adoption of this charter five members of the 
Board shall be elected who shall by lot divide themselves in three classes of two, 
two, and one member each. The first class shall hold office until the next school 
election to be held on the second Tuesday in April, two years after the first school 
election held after this charter becomes effective when their successors shall be 
elected; the second class until the second ensuing school election to be held on the 
second Tuesday in April four years after the first school election held after this 
charter becomes effective when their successors shall be elected; and the third 
class until the third ensuing school election to be held on the second Tuesday of 
April six years after the first school election held after this charter becomes effec- 
tive when his successor shall be elected. Election of members to the school 
Board shall thereafter be provided for in the same manner as indicated above, 
two members to be elected at each of two succeeding elections and one at the 
third ensuing election. It is provided, however, that vacancies in membership of 
the Board between election periods shall be filled by the Board until the next 
ensuing school election when such vacancy shall be filled in the same manner as 
is provided for in the election of other members of the Board. 

Sec. The Board of Education shall have power to levy and collect such 

taxes as are necessary for the support of public education in such city, provided 
that the tax lev>' for any fiscal year shall not exceed $1.25 on each $100. of valua- 
tion of real and personal property, except as such rate in excess of $1.25 shall 
have been submitted to a vote of the qualified electors of the city at a special 
election called by the Board of Education for this purpose. All officers of the 
city of Atlanta, and of the state of Georgia concerned with the assess- 
ment and collection of taxes, fines, and penalties, which have accrued to the 
Board of Education for the support of public schools either by payment out of 



86 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS — THEIR DEVELOPMENT 

the State Treasury to the city of Atlanta, or by the payment to the Board 
of Education of the non-resident tuition fund received by the city of Atlanta 
or by the payment to the Board of Education of not less than 26% of the total 
income of the City of Atlanta, shall perform such duties in relation to the 
levying and collection of school taxes, and the collection of such fines, penalties, 
or fees as are now imposed upon them by law, it being provided that the rate of 
tax to be assessed against real and personal property shall be fixed by the Board 
of Education and transmitted by them to said officers responsible for the levying 
and collection of taxes, and included by said tax officials in the tax levied and 
collected within the city of Atlanta, it being further provided that the said 
tax officials shall turn over to the Board of Education an amount equal to that 
which would be secured by the levying of the tax determined by the Board of 
Education upon the assessed value of all real and personal property included 
within the limits of the City of Atlanta. 

Sec. The State appropriation or fund received by the City of 

Atlanta from the State Treasury of the State of Georgia for educa- 
tional purposes shall be paid to the Board of Education and used by them for 
the support of public education as are the funds derived from taxes levied by 
said Board. The yearly non-resident tuition fund received by said city of 
Atlanta shall be paid to the Board of Education and used by them for the support 
of public education as are the funds derived from taxes levied by said Board. 

Sec. Any election which may be called by the Board of Education of 

such city to increase the rate of taxation for school purposes shall be held at such 
times as the Board may elect under the general election laws governing such city. 

Sec. Until the Board of Education provided for in Sec. shall 

have been elected and the members qualified to serve and until the beginning 
of the next ensuing fiscal year, the Council of the City of Atlanta shall 
appropriate and deliver to the present Board of Education and to their successors 
in office free from any charges for city bonds for school purposes, or the interest 
on the same, or a sinking fund provided to retire the same, to be used by said 
Board of Education in maintaining and developing the public school system of 
the City of Atlanta the following sums or funds each and every fiscal year: 
(a) the state appropriation or fund received by the City of Atlanta out of the 
State Treasury of the State of Georgia for educational purposes; (b) Also the 
yearly non-resident tuition fund received by the said City of Atlanta; 
(c) Also not less than 26% of the total income of the City of Atlanta from 
all sources. 

Sec. A superintendent of schools shall be appointed by the Board of 

Education for a term of five years during which term his compensation shall not 
be reduced. The Board of Education shall on the nomination of the superinten- 
dent of schools appoint an assistant superintendent of schools in charge of business 
affairs and such other assistant superintendents, supervisors, and directors as it 
may deem necessary whose compensation shall be fixed by the Board of Education 
and who shall serve for such term as may be determined by the Board of Educa- 
tion. The superintendent of schools shall have general supervision, subject to 
the control of the Board of Education, of the public school buildings and of all 
other property held by the Board of Education, of courses of instruction, discipline 
and conduct of the schools, of text books and supplies; and all appointments, 
promotions and transfers of teachers, principals, supervisors, directors, janitor?, 
engineers, and other employees of the Board of Education shall be made only upon 



CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS — THEIR DEVELOPMENT 87 

the nomination of the superintendent of schools and the approval of the Board of 
Education. All appointments and promotions of teachers shall be made upon the 
basis of merit to be ascertained so far as practicable in cases of appointment by 
examination, and in cases of promotion by length and character of service. Exami- 
nation for appointment may be conducted by the superintendent under regulations 
to be made by the Board. The superintendent of schools shall devote himself 
exclusively to the duties of his office; shall have power to appoint clerks whose 
salaries shall be fixed by the Board, and shall have power to remove the same: 
shall exercise a general supervision over the schools of the city, examine their 
condition and progress, and shall keep himself informed of the progress of educa- 
tion in other cities. He shall advise himself of the need of the extension of the 
school system of the city, shall make reports from time to time as may be fixed 
by the rules, or directed by the Board. 



II. ADMINISTRATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 

I. The City Board of Education. 

A. The composition of the city board of education. 

1. How members are selected. 

2. Number of members. 

3. Qualifications of members. 

4. Length of term. 

5. Pay of board members. 

B. Organization of city board of education. 

I. Officers. 2. Methods of work. 3. Committees. 
4. Methods of recording actions. 

C. Meetings of the city board of education. 

I. Frequency. 2. Degree of publicity. 3. Topics discussed. 
4. Actions taken. 

D. Powers and duties of the city board of education. 

1. Powers. 

a. Legislative, h. Administrative, c. Judicial. 

2. Duties. 

a. Educational, h. Civic, c. Social. 

E. Relation of the board to the city superintendent of schools. 

IL The City Superintendent of Schools. 

A. The evolution of the city school superintendent. 
I. Stages and causes. 2. Prevailing practices. 

B. The selection of city school superintendent. 

1. Prevailing practices. 

2. Principles which should govern selection. 

a. Preparation, h. Residence, c. Tenure. 
d. Experience, e. Contract. 

C. Qualifications of city superintendent of schools. 

1 . The specialized nature of the work. 

2. Educational preparation. 

3. Personal qualities. 

4. Experience. 

5. Social qualities. 

D. Relation and responsibilities to the board. 

1. Voluntary cooperation. 

2. Regulations and by-laws. 

E. Powers and duties of city superintendent. 

1. Requiring approval of the board. 

2. Entire responsibility with the superintendent. 



ADMINISTRATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 89 

3. Administrative duties which may be delegated to or participated 
in by others. 
F. The city superintendent and the public. 

1. Public press. 

2. Organizations and clubs. 

3. Other social groups. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bard, H. E. The City School District. Chap. i. Teachers College. New 
York 1909. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap, viii and ix. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. Report of the Survey of the Public School System of Portland, 
Ore. Chap. 11. World Book Co. Yonkers, N. Y. 1915. 

4. Douglas, B. C. The Social and Educational Status of the City Superintendent. 
In preparation. 

5. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in 
the United States. Chap, viii and ix. Macmillan Co. New York 1915. 

6. Goodnow, F. J. and Howe, F. C. Report on the Organization, Status and Pro- 
cedure of the Department of Education, City of New York. 

7. Hines, L. N. An Ideal School Board from the Superintendent's Point of View. 
N. E. A. Proceedings. San Francisco, Cal. 191 1. 

8. Moore, E. C. How New York City Administers its Schools. 

9. Morrison, J. C. Legal Status of the School Superintendent. Warwick & York. 
Baltimore, Md. 192 1. 

10. Shiels, Albert. A Report on Organization of Board of Education and Its Com- 
mittees. Department of Education, City of New York, Division of Reference 
and Research, Publication No. 10. 1915. 

11. Strayer, G. D. Report of a Survey of the School System of Butte, Mont. 
Chap. I. World Book Co. Yonkers, N. Y. ist ed. 1914; 2nd ed. 1916. 

12. Strayer, G. D. and Engelhardt, N. L. Baltimore Survey. Vol. 11, Part l: 
Administration. Board of School Commissioners. Baltimore, Md. 1921. 

13. Theisen,_W. W. The City Superintendent and the Board of Education. Teach- 
ers College. New York 191 7. 



90 AEMINISTRATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 

PROBLEM 1 

Relation of Superintendent and Board of Education 
The following are by-laws adopted by the New York Board of Education.^ 

1. That "any salaried officer, clerk or other employee may be suspended by 
the President or the Superintendent of Schools, who shall report his 
action at the next regular meeting of the Board, when all acts relating to 
the case shall be submitted to the Board for its consideration and action." 

2. That the Associate Superintendents shall make reports on such matters 
and in such form and at such times as the Board of Education, the 
President, or the Superintendent of Schools shall require. 

3- That the Bureau of Reference, Research and Statistics be independent 
of the direction or control of the City Superintendent of Schools. 

4. The President shall exercise general supervision over the transaction of 
the business affairs of the Board of Education and shall have the power 
to require that reports be made to him by any officer or employee for his 
use and information or for presentation to the Board, for its consideration 
and action. The Superintendent of Schools shall act in administration 
of the business affairs under the advice and guidance of the President. 

5. That the Examiners be omitted from those subject to the supervision 
and direction of the Superintendent of Schools. The subjects and dates 
of examination are to be designated by the Board of Education and the 
Board of Examiners shall perform such other duties relating to exarnina- 
tions as the Board of Education may require. 

6. That the matter of the organization of schools into major divisions and 
the assignment of Associate Superintendents thereto be subject to the 
approval of the Board of Education. The same is true of the assignment 
of the District Superintendents to local school board districts or to 
special professional supervisory duties. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss each of these by-laws as to its possible effect upon the administra- 
tion of schools. 

2. Are any principles of school administration violated in any of these? 
If so, which ones and by which by-laws? 

3. What should a superintendent of schools do in this situation? What 
would be the consequences of the solution you propose? 

4. What was the outcome in the controversy which was caused in 191 9 
over these by-laws? 

1 The Public and the Schools. Report of the Public Education Association, New York City. 
Nov. 8, 1919- 



ADMINISTRATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 9I 

PROBLEM 2 

Rules and Regulations of a City Board of Education 

Read the following extracts from the proposed rules and regulations for a 
city board of education. 

1. Compare them with those given in Problem i. 

2. Are any principles of school administration violated in any of these? 
If so, which principles and by which rules or regulations? 

3. Are the rights and opportunities of teachers and all non-administrative 
groups properly safeguarded? 

4. What proposals would you make to strengthen these rules? 

PROPOSED RULES AND REGULATIONS 
FOR A BOARD OF SEVEN MEMBERS. 

Organization 

The board shall meet annually for organization in the central administration 
offices of the schools, at which meeting five members shall constitute a quorum 
for the transaction of business. At this meeting the board shall elect a treasurer. 
The president shall at this meeting or as soon as he deems advisable thereafter 
announce the standing committees for the year. These committees shall be a 
committee on buildings, a committee on finance, a committee on teachers and 
such other special committees as the superintendent may from time to time 
desire and the board approve. 

Meetings 

The board shall meet regularly each month at such hour as the president may 
from time to time designate. Special meetings shall be held at the direction 
of the president or upon the written request of three members. Committees — 
The duties of all committees shall be advisory and not executive. The chief 
executive shall have power to refer current business to appropriate committees 
for consideration. It shall be the primary function of committees to consider 
the reports of executive officers. 

Executive Officers — The Superintendent 

The superintendent of schools shall be the chief executive officer. He shall 
be the administrative head of all departments and shall be responsible for their 
efficient administration. 

Powers and Duties 

Nominations. He shall have sole authority to nominate to the board for 
appointment all assistant executive officers in charge of departments. He shall 
nominate all assistant superintendents in the educational department and all 
supervisors and principals. He shall nominate a chief attendance officer and a 
chief medical inspector. 

Appointments. No person shall be appointed or elected to any position if the 
chief executive officer disapproves of such appointment or election. He shall 
conduct or cause to be conducted all examinations, both written or oral, for 
positions as teachers. He shall have power to select and appoint all teachers 
subject only to disapproval by a five-sevenths vote of the board. 



92 ADMINISTRATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 

Assignments and transfers. He shall make such assignments and reassignments 
or transfers as in his professional judgment are necessary to secure the highest 
efficiency in teaching. 

Improvement of teachers in service. He shall be charged with the responsibility 
of all measures for the improvement of teachers in service. He shall at all times, 
with the aid of such professional assistance as he may command, labor for improve- 
ment in the efficiency of the teaching and supervisory staff. 

He shall keep detailed records of efforts and achievements in the direction 
of improvement. No teacher, principal or supervisor shall be dismissed until the 
superintendent presents the records of efforts made to improve such teacher, 
principal or supervisor. 

That teachers may have adequate personal supervision, the board agrees to 
appoint such departmental and special supervisors as the superintendent deems 
necessary. The board demands that the superintendent and his assistants capi- 
talize the success of especially capable teachers, and for that purpose the superin- 
tendent may require any teacher to observe the teaching of successful teachers 
at his discretion. He shall report the amount of substitute service required for 
such purpose to the board for approval. He shall be permitted to order the 
dismissal of any room or grade for such attendance upon teachers' meetings as 
he deems advisable. He shall report the amount of such time granted to the 
board for approval. He shall, with the aid of his assistants, from time to time 
issue bulletins, circulars and courses of study, containing suggestive methods 
for the guidance of teachers. He shall conduct such annual institutes as may be 
required by law, or as he may determine, and shall have power to expend such 
amounts for the services of specialists in education as approved in the budget. 

Leaves of absence. The superintendent may recommend teachers who have 
been in the employ of the board for a period of six years to be granted one year's 
leave of absence for study under conditions approved by him, such teachers to 
receive a salary equal to one-half of the salary regularly received, provided, 
however, that eligibility to such salary allowance shall be on condition that such 
teacher continue in the service of the system for three additional years. 

Salaries. The superintendent shall recommend the schedule of salaries to the 
board for approval. 

Removal of teachers. The superintendent may suspend teachers for cause. 
Such suspension shall be reported to the board. No teacher shall be recommended 
for dismissal except upon evidence that the superintendent has used every avail- 
able means to improve the efficiency of the teacher in question without success. 
All removals shall be subject to contract terms, provided that teachers may be 
removed at any time for cause. 

Selection of textbooks. The superintendent shall, with the aid of such professional 
assistance as may be available, select all textbooks to be used in the schools, 
provided that all purchases shall be within the appropriation of the budget for 
textbooks and provided the board may disapprove changes only by a five-sevenths 
vote. 

Courses of study. The superintendent shall propose the subjects to be taught. 
After approval by the board he shall, with such professional assistance as may be 
available, prepare minimum courses of study, including therein statements of 
principles and aims, suggestive methods and lesson plans. 

Initiating new policies. The superintendent of schools, as chief executive officer, 
shall initiate all policies. 



ADMINISTRATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS 93 

The budget. He shall annually, with the assistance of the assistant superin- 
tendent in charge of business affairs, prepare the budget of expenditures and 
receipts for all departments. He shall recommend transfers of funds within the 
budget. The budget shall contain as a minimum the following information: 

1. A summary of proposed expenditures and probable receipts with similar data 
in parallel columns for the present and the two preceding fiscal years. 

2. A detailed estimate of proposed expenditures for each department showing 
in parallel columns expenditures for the two preceding fiscal years, together 
with expenditures for corresponding items for the current fiscal year, 
including adjustments due to transfers between appropriations plus an 
estimate of the probable additional expenditures and unappropriated 
balances for the remainder of the current fiscal year, together with the 
amount of supplies and materials on hand. 

3. Increases or decreases of requests compared with corresponding appro- 
priations for current and previous years. 

Buildings. The superintendent shall make recommendations to the board for 
the erection of new buildings and the alteration or improvement of old buildings. 
He shall recommend the location and shall approve all plans and specifications 
for construction. 

Supplies and equipment. The superintendent shall recommend all apparatus, 
supplies and equipment to be purchased and the specifications thereof to the 
board as a part of the detailed budget. No specifications shall be adopted without 
his approval. He may authorize expenditures not provided in the budget in such 
amounts as the board shall from time to time approve. 

By-laws and rules. The superintendent shall prepare and submit to the board 
for approval by-laws prescribing the authority and responsibility of executive 
officers. He shall prepare rules for the government of supervisors, principals, 
teachers and pupils. 

The superintendent' s report. The superintendent shall report to the board on 
all important matters of administration. He shall make such reports as may be 
necessary to exhibit the efficiency of all departments. He shall accompany all 
proposed policies by such statistical data as may be necessary to show specifically 
past achievements and present conditions. He shall direct the preparation of the 
reports of all subordinate executive officers. He shall direct the records to be kept 
and reports to be made by principals, supervisors and teachers. 

Note. From Theisen, W. W., The City Superintendent and the Board of Education, pp. 127 ff. 
New York: Teachers College, 1917. 



III. PUBLICITY OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 

I. Need for School Publicity in a Democracy, 

A. Relation of public schools to democratic government. 

B. Relation of schools system to ideals of the public. 

1. Necessity for keeping patrons informed of school achievements. 

2. Necessity for informing patrons of needed and proposed changes. 

II. Origin and Development of Public School Publicity. 

A. Purpose, content, and authorship of early reports. 

B. Relation of the development of public schools to school reports. 
I. Number issued. 2. Material contained. 

3. For whom issued. 4. By whom issued. 

C. Present practices in city school publicity. 

1. Reports and publications issued regularly. 

2. Publicity connected with special campaigns. 

3. Continuous city school publicity. 

III. Types of City School Publications Issued at Regular Intervals. 

A. With respect to form. 
I. As determined by 

a. Function, b. Frequency of issue, c. Means of circulation. 

B. With respect to authorship. 

1. A single designated official. 

2. A composite of several reports. 

a. By what departments? b. How assembled? 

C. With respect to content. 

1. Items included in majority of reports. 

2. Methods of presentation. 
a. Controlling elements. 

3. Amount of detail. 

4. Elements contributing to convenience in use. 

IV. Publicity and Special Educational Campaigns. 

A. Organization for promoting campaign and for the accompanying 
publicity. 

1. Collection of necessary data. 

2. Relating of data to campaign. 

3. Preparation of material for various types of publicity. 

B. Variations in publicity for different types of campaigns. 

V. City School Systems and Continuous Programs of Publicity. 
A. Extent of this practice in the United States. 



PUBLICITY OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 95 

B. Varying methods in use. 

1. Value of those using special publications. 

2. Value of those employing regular publicity channels. 

C. Provision for i)ublicity in the school budget. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Alexander, Carter. School Statistics and Publicity. Silver Burdett & Co. 
New York 19 19. 

2. Alexander, C. and Theisen, W. W. Publicity Campaigns for Better School 
Support. World Book Co. Yonkers, N. Y. 192 1. 

3. Bureau of Municipal Research of New York. Suggestions Answered by .School 
Reports as They Are. New York City 191 7. 

4. Doten, Williard. "The Annual Report." American School Board Journal, 
May 1916. 

5. Falkner, Roland P. "What Can and Do School Reports Show?" The Psy- 
chological Clinic, Vol. iv, pp. 1-8. March 1910. 

6. Hanus, Paul H. "Town and City School Reports, More Particularly Super- 
intendents' Reports." School and .Society, Vol. Iii, pp. 145-55, January 29, 
February 5, 1916. 

7. Kendall, C. N. "What Should CiO into a City Superintendent's Report?" 
Old Penn., 13:1025-30, May 8, 1915. Also in American School Board Journal, 
51:9-10, 70-71, August 1915. 

8. National Education Association. Final Report of Committee on Uniform 
Records and Reports. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 3. 1912. 

9. Neale, M. G. School Reports as a Means of Securing Increased Support of 
Education. Missouri Book Co. Columbia, Mo. 192 1. 

10. "Reports of City Board of Education." Elementary School Journal, Nov. 1914. 

11. Reynolds, R. G. School News in the Daily Newspaper. In Preparation. 

12. Rugg, H. O. Statistical Method Applied to Education. Chap. X. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series.) Boston 1917. 

13. Snedden, D. and Allen, W. H. School Reports and School Efficiency. Mac- 
millan Co. New York 1908. 



96 PUBLICITY OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 

PROBLEM 1 

Purpose of Superintendents' Annual Reports ^ 

Criticise the following statements of aims as taken from several recent 
superintendents' reports as to (i) Purpose; (2) Content; (3) Form and 
probable effectiveness. 

A. Springfield, Ohio, for year ending August 31, 19 18. 

To THE President and Members of the Board of Education: 
Gentlemen : 

In accordance with the requirements of your rules and regulations, I have the 
honor to submit to you my report of the schools for the school year 1917-18. 
It is my desire that this report serve as the chief means of communication between 
the people and their authorized officials as to the conduct of the public schools. 
To this end, I invite the attention of the readers to the tables of statistics as 
compiled by the various school officers. Such tables are of value in many ways, 
giving as they do bird's-eye summaries of the results obtained in our schools, p. 1 8 . 

B. St. Louis, Mo., for year ending June 30, 1918. 

The discussions of various phases of the progress of the schools during the year 
covered by this report, 19 17-18, were not prepared in the form previously followed 
in the annual reports of the Superintendent for many years past. Instead it was 
planned that the report of the Superintendent for the year 19 1 7-1 8 should discuss 
only a few very prominent features of the school work for that year. Accordingly 
the war work of the schools was reviewed by a number of principals and teachers 
and published in September, 19 1 8, as an advance print of the annual report of 
the Superintendent of Instruction under the title, 'War Work of the St. Louis 
Public School.' The plan of the Superintendent's report contemplated the 
inclusion of only these discussions and because of the length of them it was 
expected to leave out the usual summary of the progress in the several departments 
of the school work. In line with the form of this report which the war situation 
made advisable, a recommendation to publish the annual report in similar form 
in the future was made to the Board November 12, 1918, and approved. Instead 
of printing a large number of complete volumes many months after the year has 
closed this plan contemplates the issuance during the school year of discussions 
of specific phases of school work as advance prints of the Superintendent's annual 
report. It is planned to give these pamphlets a wide distribution both in the city 
and outside and to restrict very materially the circulation formerly made of the 
large and expensive complete reports of the Board. It is expected that the publi- 
cation of the report in this way will be to the advantage of the schools in a much 
wider and more immediate publicity of significant progress in the schools, 
pp. 9, 10, II. 

C. Cleveland, Ohio, for year ending August 31, 1918. 

The following report attempts nothing more than the briefest mention, for the 
sake of record, of the principal new policies, plans, and activities instituted during 
the school year 1917-18. To make adequate presentation of these, and many 
other lesser but important and interesting new plans and activities, would result 

> From Neale, M. G., School Reports as a Means of Securing Increased School Support. 



PUBLICITY OP' CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 97 

in a ponderous, uninviting and expensive volume that few people would read. 
Instead it is planned to issue from time to time attractive, illustrated monographs 
or pamphlets, each treating some single phase of the work or policy of the schools. 
p. II. • 

PROBLEM 2 

Ethical Principles Governing the Use of the Newspapers by School 

Administrators ^ 

From the Reports of 250 Superintendents of Schools 

1. Service of public interest paramount. 

"Will it serve the best interests of the children to print this stor>'?" 
"Positive upbuilding of the school system should be the governing factor 
in giving out school news." 

2. Maintain right relations with reporters and editors. 
"Be impartial." 

"Be frank." 

"Respect the opinions of the paper." 

"Be courteous." 

"Take the newspaper men into your confidence." 

"Give the opposition of the press due consideration." 

"Have confidence in reporters and editors." 

"Don't ask for suppression of unfavorable news." 

"Editor should always have the right to edit any material." 

"A newspaper attack is seldom personal, merely a difterence of policy." 

"Advertising is not news. It should be paid for." 

"Consider the interests and welfare of the paper." 

3. Personal glorification has no place in school news. 
"Keep yourself in the background." 
"Advertise your schools, not yourself." 

"Don't play to the grandstand for personal aggrandizement." 

4. Give subordinates credit for work done. 
"Give all departments an equal show." 

5. Tell the truth always. 
"State the real facts." 
"Be honest." 

"Be scrupulously accurate." 

"Tell the truth, even though it hurts." 

"Put all the cards on the table." 

"In controverted questions, give both sides." 

"Never use 'bunk' in school news." 

"Don't warp or twist the interpretation of statistics." 

6. Develop a sense of proportion in handing out school news, 
"Too much publicity is more injurious than none at all." 
"Don't expect too much space." 

"Use common sense." 

"Present only one worth while matter at a time." 

' From Reynolds, R. G. Schocl News in the Daily Newspaper. 1922. 



98 PUBLICITY OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 

7. Don't suppress unfavorable facts. 
"Don't try to conceal defects." 

8. Never enter into a newspaper controversy. 

9. "Be independent." "Be conservative." "Be dignified." 

"No publicity at the expense of the dignity of the cause of education." 

10. Use wisdom in the selection of subject matter. 
"Don't write unless you have something to say." 

"Don't give publicity to intimate matters concerning pupils and teachers." 

"Don't complain." 

"Don't boast." 

"Feature the everyday work of the school, not only the extra activities." 

"Make news specific." 

"Comparisons are always odious." 

"Eliminate personal opinion." 

"Don't exaggerate." 

"Furnish items of national as well as local interest." 

"Never discuss personalities." 

11. Avoid sensationalism. 

12. "The less you give the newspapers, the better you will accomplish the 
work in your school." 

"The public school is an established necessity and therefore needs no 
advertising." 

13. "Never use a 'nom de plume' in communications to the paper." 

QUESTIONS 

1. Criticize the above list of principles governing the use of newspapers by 
school administrators from the standpoint of (a) Completeness; (b) 
Practice; (c) Policy. 

2. Which of these principles do you consider open to question? Why? 

3. What suggestions do you get from this list of principles which would help 
in the organization and administration of other forms of school publicity? 



IV A. ORGANIZATION— CITY SCHOOL EDUCATIONAL 

STAFF 

I. The Development of the City Educational Department. 

A. Relation to the development of the office of city superintendent. 

1 . Reasons for the emergence of the city superintendent as a special 
official. 

2. Nature of the duties he had to assume. 

3. Need of assistance. 

4. Kind of assistance obtained. 

B. Relation to changes in educational policies. 

1. Changes in: 

a. Subject matter, b. Method. 

2. Demands for training in supervision and administration. 

C. Relation to the growth and de\^elopment of cities. 

1 . Effect of size of city : 

a. Number in department, b. Kinds of work to be done. 

2. Effect of location of cities. 

3. EfTect of past and prospective rate of growth. 

II. Organization of a City Department of Education. 

A. Principal functions of a city department of education. 

B. Staff necessary to perform each function. 

I. Standards for various sized cities in regard to: 

a. Number in each department. 

b. Preparation. 

c. Salary' and tenure. 

C. Types of organization for city educational departments. 

1 . Relation of department to : 

a. Board of education, b. City superintendent. 
c. Teachers, d. Pupils, e. Public. 

2. Interrelation of the divisions of the department. 

3. Relation of department of education to city departments. 

III. Organiz.\tion of Instructional and Supervisory Staff. 

A. Some principles which should govern the organization of any city 
school system. 

1. Administrative responsibility. 

2. Utilization of staff. 

3. Democracy of organization. 

4. Adjustment of local needs, 
c. School, b. Community. 

B. Types of organizations now in operation. 



100 ORGANIZATION CITY SCHOOL EDUCATIONAL STAFF 

C. Proposed changes in organization. 

1. Readjustments necessary for 

a. Greater teacher participation, b. City size. 
c. Methods used. d. Curriculum content. 
e. Centralization points. 

2. Advantages and dangers in proposals. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap, xii and xiii. 

2. Hunter, F. M. Relation of Supervisors to Principals and Teachers. N. E. A. 
Proceedings, p. 300. 1913. 

3. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See Index. 

4. Moore, E. C. How New York City Administers Its Schools. Chap, vii and 
VIII. 

5. Russell, Jas. E. Organization of Teachers. Pamphlet. Teachers College. 
New York 1920. 

6. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. 11. American Book 
Co. New York 1920. 

7. Surveys. Butte, Portland, St. Paul, Gary, Boston, Salt Lake, Cleveland, 
St. Louis, Boise, Baltimore, Atlanta, and others. Chapter on Administration. 



ORGANIZATION — CITY SCHOOL EDUCATIONAL STAFF lOI 



PROBLEM 

The Organization Chart of the School System of a City of 100,000 



PUBLIC 




— I Teachers \\ Hxa-Bea | | t | 





Home 
Visitors 




Mothers 
Club 


STUDENTS 







Key. A — Assistant Superintendent (Industrial Education); B — Medical Director; C — Supervisor 
(Kindergarten and Elementary); D — Supervisors of Departments; E — Recreation Director; 
F — Night School Director; i — Office; 2 — Repairs; 3 — Operation; 4 — Supplies; 5 — Census; 6 — 
Attendance; 7 — Dentist; 8 — Art; 9 — Home Training; 10 — Industrial Education; 11 — Music; 
12 — Physical Education; 13 — Special Classes; 14 — Writing; a — Secretary; b — Statistician; 
c — Chief Engineer, Mechanics, Emergency Men, Engineers, Janitors; d — Book Clerk and 
Assistant Storekeeper, Shipping Clerk and Truckman; e — Accountant, Clerk and Assistants; 
f — Department Teachers; g — Special Class Teachers. 

QUESTION 

If you were elected superintendent of this city what changes in organiza- 
tion would you desire and how would you secure them? 



* Organization proposed in 1919 for Duluth, Minnesota. (Not adopted.) 



IV B. ORGANIZATION— COURSES OF STUDY 

I. Stages in Development of Modern Courses of Study. 

A. Changes in content of courses of study. 

I. Factors which have determined content. 

B. Changes in methods of formulating courses of study. 

1. By whom done in different stages of development. 

2. Methods employed in determining content and sequence. 

3. Modern attempts to vitalize courses of study by more represen- 
tative formulation. 

C. Changes in m.ethods of administering courses of study. 

1. Effect of changes in aims of education involving: 

a. Administrative authority, h. Number educated. 
c. Extent of education, d. Support. 

2. Other changes affecting the administration of courses of study. 
a. Social, h. Economic, c. Political, d. Educational. 

II. Relation of the Courses of Study to a City School System. 

A. Relation to the community, state and nation. 

I. Factors which should influence the courses of study. 

B. Responsibilities of board of education for courses of study. 

C. Relation to the city superintendent and his staff. 
I . Effect of located responsibility. 

D. Relation to the regular teachers. 

I. Factors which limit their participation. 

III. Methods of Developing Courses of Study. 

A. Elements to be determined beforehand. 

I. General content. 2. Minimum essentials. 

3. Local demands. 4. Function. 5. Form. 
6. Courses to be prepared or revised. 

B. Organizations for developing courses of study. 

1. Principles involved. 

2. Results of organizations which have been used. 

3. Suggestive organizations. 

a. For different sized cities, h. For various subjects. 
c. For different school divisions and plans of organization. 

C. Provisions for keeping courses of study constantly adjusted. 

IV. Methods of Administering Courses of Study. 

A. Factors determining the method of administering. 

B. Provisions for flexibility in the courses of study. 

C. Relation of courses of study to supervisory responsibility. 



ORGANIZATION — COURSES OF STUDY 1 03 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bobbitt, Franklin. The Curriculum. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside 
Textbook Series). Boston 1918. 

2. Bonser, F. G. The Elementary School Curriculum. Macmillan Co. New 
York 1 92 1. 

3. Cubberle>', E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. pp. 274-320. 

4. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. See "Curriculum" in Index. 
Macmillan Co. New York 1916. 

5. Kilpatrick, W. H. The Project Method. Teachers College. 1918. 

6. McMurry, Frank. Elementary School Standards. Chap, viii and ix. 
World Book Co. Yonkers, N. Y. 191 8. 

7. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See topics. 

8. National Society for the Study of Education Yearbooks. 14th — Parti; i6th — 
Part I; 17th— Part i; 1 8th— Part li; 19th— Part I. 

9. Sears, J. B. Classroom Organization and Control, pp. 123-143. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 191 8. 

10. Strayer, G. D. Report of a Survey of the School System, Butte, Mont. Chap. in. 

1 1 . Strayer and Bachman. The Gary Public Schools — Organization and Adminis- 
tration, pp. vii-xix, 9-22, 41-58. General Education Board. New York 
1918. 

12. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap 11. 



T04 



ORGANIZATION — COURSES OF STUDY 



PROBLEM 

The following is a proposed organization for securing maximum cooperation 
in building and revising the courses of study for a city employing 250 or more 
teachers. 



BOARD OF EDDCATIOH 



SUPERINTENDEHT OP SCHOOLS 



5 nenibers 



Eleoteoi ty H.S. 
teachers in the 
5 largest dif- 
ferentiated 
courses, e.g. 
college pre- 
paratory, com- 
mercial, 
etc. 



Departmental 
meet lags 



Experimental 

and 
Control Classes 



Advisory Council 
4 memhers 



1 



1 H.S. princi- 
pal elected hy 
H.S. princi- 
pals, 3 elemen- 
tary school 
principals 
elected hy elem. 
school 
principals 



I 



Principal* • 
meetinya 



on Courses of Study 

9 memhers 4-10 members 



1 teacher 
elected by 
the teachers 
in each grade 
the kinder- 
garten, elem. 
and inter- 
mediate 
school 



Grade 
■meetings 



Experimental 

and 
Control Clflssftg 



All asst. su- 
perintendents, 
general super- 
visors and 
head super- 
visors of 
special 
subjects 



Special 
teacher 
meetings 



Experimental 

and 
Control Clasaes- 



Discuss this plan from the standpoint of: (i) Practicability; (2) Adequacy 
of representation; (3) Size of council; (4) Location of responsibility; (5) Re- 
liability _^of results. 

Propose changes to meet your criticism in each case. 



IV C. ORGANIZATION— CITY SCHOOL DIVISIONS 

I. Influences Which Have Changed School Divisions. 

A. Economic and social changes affecting place of school. 

B. Development of idea of publicly supported schools. 

1. Factors contributing. 

2. Legal provisions necessary'. 

C. Needs for constant adjustment of schools. 

I. National. 2. State. 3. Local. 4. Social. 5. Industrial. 

IT. Various Methods of School Organization. 

A. The traditional eight-four plan. 

1 . Reasons for its development and prevalence. 

2. School procedure which has been adjusted to this plan. 

3. Advantages and disadvantages of this plan. 

4. Effect of the size of the city and local conditions. 

B. Modifications of the school divisions. 

1. Reasons for early changes. 

2. The junior high school (intermediate school). 

a. Advantages. 

(i) Economic. (2) Educational. (3) Social. 
(4) Local adaptability. 

b. Various forms of organization. 

c. Effect of local needs on function, organization, staff, etc. 

d. Present status of the junior high school in the United States. 

3. Prevocational, cosmopolitan, comprehensive and specialized high 
schools. 

a. Results of trials which have been made. 

b. Coordination with higher and special schools in the city. 

4. The junior college. 

a. Advantages and arguments in favor of junior colleges. 

b. Present status and needed standardizations. 

5. City training schools for teachers. 

6. Institutions of higher learning supported by cities. 

III. Modifications for Flexibility of Grading and Promotion. 

A. The Mannheim and other European plans. 

B. The best known of American plans. 

1. Results and limitations of each (Batavia, Cambridge, Pueblo, 
Newton, Gary, Winnetka and others). 

2. Elements of more general applicability. 

3. Special classes and other plans. 

C. Principles controlling these special modifications. 



I06 ORGANIZATION — CITY SCHOOL DIVISIONS 

D. Lines of future development. 
I. Determined by: 

a. Past experience, b. Extent of public support. 
c. Educational experiments. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Briggs, Thomas. The Junior High School. Table of Contents. Houghton 
Mifflin (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1920. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. Chap, iv, 
V, and VI. Macmillan Co. New York 1915. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap, xviii. 

4. Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States. Chap, xiii and In- 
dex. 

5. Inglis, Alexander. Principles of Secondary Education. See Table of Con- 
tents. Houghton Mififlin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1918. 

6. Koos, L. V. Junior High School. Chap, i and 11. Harcourt, Brace & Howe. 
New York 1920. 

7. Monroe, Paul. Principles of Secondary Education. Table of Contents. 
Macmillan Co. New York 1919. 

8. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See various topics. 

9. Surveys: Butte, Portland, Salt Lake, St. Paul, St. Louis, Cleveland, Denver, 
Gary, Baltimore, Atlanta. Educational organizations. 

10. Van Denburg, J. K. The Junior High School Idea. Table of Contents. 
Henry Holt & Co. New York 1922. 

Note. Extensive bibliographies may be found under the various topics, e. g., Secondary schools, 
Industrial schools, etc. 



ORGANIZATION — CITY SCHOOL DIVISIONS 



107 



PROBLEM 

The following is one of the proposed promotional and course of study 
plans for the City of St. Louis, Missouri. 




-, , SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

Grocies 

12th Sane curricula carried throueh the senior high school 

11th Same curricula provided for in the 9th grade. 

10th Twelve units must be conrpleted in the senior high school 



ELmENTARY SCHOOLS 
Grade K. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 



A proposed program of course of study. From The Junior Life, Vol. V, No. i, 1920. Ben Blewett 
Junior High School. 



1. Criticise the above as to: (i) Administration; (2) Economy of time; 
(3) Attractiveness; (4) Educational desirability. 

2. What are the special advantages of this type of organization for the junior 
high school? 



V A. SUPERVISION— RELATION TO ADMINISTRATION 

I. Development of the Supervisory Function. 

A. Changes in supervision as to — 

1. Aims and purposes. 2. Officers. 3. Methods. 

B. Relation of the superintendent to supervision. 

1. Location of fundamental responsibility. 

2. Conditions under which responsibility ma}' be delegated. 

C. General principles governing school supervision. 
I . Those having to do with 

a. Purpose of supervision. 

b. Responsibility for results. 

c. Courses of study. 

d. Progress of children. 

e. Rating of teachers. 

/. Improvement of teachers. 
g. Local adjustments. . 

IL Methods and Results of Supervision. 

A. Those based upon personal judgments of supervisors. 

1. Inspectional supervision. 

a. By whom done. 

b. Frequency of visits. 

c. Length of visits. 

d. Standards to be used. 

e. Reliability of findings. 

/. Use to be made of results. 

2. Supervision through visiting and conferences. 

a. Occasional visits. 

(i) Advantages. (2) Limitations. 

b. Consecutive or follow-up visits and conferences. 
(i) Technique of observation. 

(2) Technique of consultation. 

(3) Extent to be used. 

(4) Staff demanded. 

3. Supervision through visiting by teachers. 
a. Advantages, b. Dangers. 

c. Means of making constructive. 

B. Those based upon more quantitative measures. 
I. Scorecards for rating teachers. 

a. Stages of development. 

b. Merits and faults of the several cards. 



SUPERVISION — RELATION TO ADMINISTRATION I09 

c. Success of the method. 

d. Variations used to correct objections. 

2. Schemes for teachers rating teachers. 

a. Results, b. Advantages, c. Possibilities. 

3. Supervision through measurements of pupil achievements. 

a. Measurements which have been used. 

b. Advantages and faults of each method. 

c. Need for new tests to show effects of supervision. 

4. Supervision through model and demonstration lessons. 

C. Other methods of improving teachers in service (discussed more 
fully in later chapter). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap. xv. 

2. McMurry, Frank. Elementary School Standards. Chap, i to vii. 

3. National Society for the Study of Education. 15th Yearbook, Part i. 17th 
Yearbook, Part 11. 

4. Nutt, H. W. Supervision of Instruction. Particularly Chap, i and 11. 
Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston, Mass. 1920. 

5. Rugg, H. O. "Is the Rating of Human Character Possible?" Journal of 
Educational Psychology, Nov. 1921, Dec. 1921, Jan. 1922, Feb. 1922. 

6. Salt Lake City Survey. Report of a Survey of the School System. Chap. V. 
World Book Co. Yonkers, N. Y. 1916. 

7. Sears, J. B. Classroom Organization and Control. Chap. xvii. 

8. Smith, H. L. A Survey of a Public School System. Chap. viii. Teachers 
College. New York 1917. 

9. Strayer, G. D. A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Chap. xvii. Mac- 
millan Co. New York 1919. 

[O. Strayer, G. D. Some Problems in City School Administration. Chap. 11 

and V. World Book Company. New York 1916. 
I. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. in. 



I lO SUPERVISION RELATION TO ADMINISTRATION 

PROBLEM 1 

The following is a brief account of the way a city superintendent in a small 
city handled the case of an inefificient teacher he found on his staff. 

A superintendent had a very inefficient fourth grade teacher in one of his schools. 
She had a high school education and had been in the system fifteen years before 
he went to that place, and was strong socially, having many friends among her 
patrons and in the community. He tried to build up her work by visits to her 
class and conferences over her methods, but her resentful attitude toward super- 
vision made his efforts futile. He recommended attendance at a summer session 
of a normal school and only succeeded in arousing resentment to the extent 
that she told a number of her local friends that she was being persecuted by the 
superintendent. 

This resulted in a self appointed committee of friends and patrons visiting the 
superintendent in this teacher's behalf. He told them that he appreciated their 
interest in the matter, promised a careful investigation and asked them to return 
a week from that day. He then gave the Courtis Test for addition and sulptrac- 
tion, a composition scored by the Hillegas scale and the writing by Thorndike's 
scale, and Trabue's Completion Test in this teacher's room, in the grades above 
and below hers in the same building and in the same grades in other buildings, 
and presented the results to the teacher with the privilege of examining the 
results and the correction of the papers. The results showed her inefficiency so 
plainly that she asked for the privilege of meeting the committee with him on the 
next day and also for a year's leave of absence in which to attend the state normal 
school. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Do you consider this as an evidence of skill in supervision? Why? 

2. Was it better than to recommend her for reappointment? For the City? 
For the Superintendent? 

3. Was that a legitimate use to make of standard tests? Did it impair the 
use of those tests for more important uses? 

4. Do you consider the tests were adequate? In number? In subjects tested? 
What tests would you have used had you followed the above plan? 

5. What other methods might have been used in this case? How would they 
have been better than the method used? 

PROBLEM 2 

Criticise the following report of the actual things done by a principal to 
improve the work of a weak teacher with regard to : 

1. Value of the methods and devices used. 

2. What modifications or additions would you suggest for the treatment of 
this case? 

3. Is there opportunity for the teacher to assume responsibility for her own 
.improvement? 

4. Is it practicable to demand reports in this detail from principals in public 
schools? 



SUPERVISION — RELATION TO ADMINISTRATION 1 1 1 

REPORT ON EFFORTS TO HELP ONE TEACHER IN SCHOOL 

I. After several short visits at different times and in different kinds of work, 
I made this analysis of her weaknesses and of features of the work in which she 
needed help and direction. 

1 . Waste of time in changing from one class to another. 

2. Failure to keep children in studying sections busy at profitable work. 

3. Failure to analyze the real difficulties the children met in class work. 

4. Lack of fire and spirit in all of the "so-called" drill work. 

5. Poor arrangement of board work. 

6. Permitting children to acquire slovenly habits in written work. 

7. Carele* mistakes in checking up the children's work. She frequently 
gave 100 per cent on a paper that was not worth 100 per cent. 

II. Efforts made to help general attitude. 

1. Through general teachers' meetings we sometimes made one of these 
weaknesses a subject of discussion in a particular meeting. Teachers 
had a chance to express themselves freely on such phases of the work and 
valuable contributions were made by all. Through this discussion this 
particular teacher had a chance to benefit by the experience of others and 
she got the general feeling on this particular subject. 

2. Through smaller group meetings, for instance a meeting of all arithmetic 
teachers. Here plans and devices were suggested by different teachers 
which they had found to be good. Where I had observed some teacher 
using some helpful device, I asked her to tell us all about it. 

3. Through individual conference with this particular teacher after each 
visit made. By reference to my visiting book to which each teacher has 
access, we were able to talk about specific points observed, and the 
teacher had a chance not only to get my views, but I had a chance to 
get hers. 

III. Efforts made to correct particular weaknesses: 

1. Through visits to other teachers. 

a. To Miss (Fourth Month). 

Miss excels in ability to pass quickly from class to class and 

to get the children settled down to work with very little time cost. 

I went with this teacher into Miss 's room, having told her 

before that this was the thing I wanted her to observe. 

b. To Miss (Fourth Month). 

Miss excels in neatness and arrangement of board work and in 

quality of black-board writing. 

c. To Miss (Fourth Month). 

Miss excels in drawing work, in neat appearance of her 

room and in good drill work in arithmetic. 
In each visit the teacher knew beforehand the specific thing which she was to 
observe, and in a conference with me after each visit we brought out prominently 
the contrast between the work observed and her own work. 

2. Through suggestions of the principal. 

a. In my visiting book December i, 8, and 16, February 5 and 10, and 
April 2. 



112 SUPERVISION RELATION TO ADMINISTRATION 

b. In individual conferences. 

c. By taking a class in arithmetic one period to show the economy of 
finding out who in the class needed help and how to give it to them, 
and at the same time keep the rest of the class profitably employed. 

d. By discovering a few cases wherein the children had been permitted 
to form wrong habits without the teacher's knowing wherein the 
trouble was, I tried to make her see the importance of first being 
sure that each child knew the right method of procedure before giving 
any drill work. 

e. Called attention to lack of neatness in children's work. 

/. Encouraged children who were not doing their best work to come to 
me and show me their work whenever it was very good. 

g. Asked the other teachers with whom she was most closely associated 
to offer such suggestions as in their judgment could be offered tact- 
fully. (In all cases where this was done, such suggestions were 
received in the spirit intended.) 

h. Two or three cases of complaint from patrons about carelessness in 
grading papers came to me. In each case I advised the patron to see 
this teacher and to call her attention to such mistakes, not in a critical 
or unfriendly way, but in the desire to help her. This method of 
calling attention to such mistakes I felt to be more effective than 
my going to her and telling her that such complaint had come to me. 
(Am satisfied that it was the better method.) 

i. We enlisted cooperation of the home in certain cases where children 
needed outside help and in other cases where children were trouble- 
some in school. Teacher brought this about through notes or personal 
conferences with the parents. 

j. By dropping into the room just for a minute or two, and commending 
anything at all that seemed good. These short stops I did not consider 
visits. (By a visit I mean observing during one or more full recitation 
periods. I have made this teacher fifteen such visits this year.) 

Note. From Smith, H. L., A Survey of a Public School SysUm. pp. 257 f. Teachers College, 
Columbia University, New York. iQi?- 



V B SUPERVISION-RELATION TO ACHIEVEMENT 
OF CHILDREN 

I. Administrative Responsibility for Pupil Achievement. 

A. Public's vital interest in results of school work. 

1. In actual work done. 

2. In adaptability. 

3. In citizenship training. 

B. Fixing of responsibility upon administrative head. 

C. Need for supervision and knowledge of product produced. 

II. Methods of Determining the Work of Children. 

A. Necessity for group instruction and its results. 

B. Achievement measured by promotion. 
I. Methods of determining promotion. 

a. Advantages, b. Temptations, c Faults. 

C. Achievement measured by examinations. 

1. Nature of. 

2. By whom given. 

3. Reliability of results. 

D. Achievement measured by standard tests and scales. 

1. Difference in nature and use between standard tests and scales. 

2. The technique of giving tests so that results are comparable. 
a. Directions, h. Time allowed. 

c. When given, d. Scoring. 

e. Tabulation. /. Interpretations. 

3. Various tests and scales with methods of using. 

a. General intelligence. 

(i) Individual. (2) Group. 

b. For specific subject, ability or process, 
(i) For various school divisions. 

(2) Advantages of each. 

(3) Standards. 

(4) Where comparable results may be secured. 

4. Other uses for standard tests and scales. 
a. By teachers, h. By pupils. 

III. Use OF Measurements of Pupil Achievements in Supervision. 

A. Uses which supervisors can make of examination grades. 

1. Report cards. 

2. Age and grade-progress studies. 

B. Use of subject tests in supervision. 
I. Need for a program of tests. 



114 SUPERVISION — RELATION TO ACHIEVEMENT OF CHILDREN 

C. Intelligence tests and bureaus of measurement in supervision. 

1. Staff needed. 

2. Extent of teacher participation. 

IV. Place of School Surveys in Supervision. 

A. Various organizations by whom it may be done. 

B. Form and extent desirable for various situations. 

C. Uses to be made of findings. 

V. A Program of Constructive Supervision. 
A. Elements which it should include. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bliss, Don C. Methods and Standards for Local School Surveys. Chap, iv and 
VL D. C. Heath & Co. New York 1918. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev, Ed. Chap, xix. 
Bibliography, p. 7, p. 330-31. 

3. McCall, W. A. How to Measure in Education. Part l Macmillan Co. New 
York 1922. 

4. Monroe, Devoss and Kelly. Educational Tests and Measurements. Bibliog-> 
raphy for each subject. Houghton Mififlin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series.) 
Boston 191 7. 

5. National Society for the Study of Education. 14th and lyth Yearbooks. 
Extensive bibliography. Chap, xiii of lyth Yearbook. 

6. Strayer, G. D. Reports of Committee on Standards and Tests for Measuring the 
Efficiency of Schools. N. E. A. 1915, 1916. 

7. Strayer and Norsworthy. How to Teach. Chap. xv. Macmillan Co. New 
York 1917. 

8. Surveys: Sections on Measurement and Achievement. 



SUPERVISION — RELATION TO ACHIEVEMENT OF CHILDREN 



115 



PROBLEM 

The two following tables give the results of testing the 5A and 5B classes 
of a city school system in the subject of Composition. The classes all wrote 
on the same subject, were given the same directions and the same amount of 
time. The papers were scored by three competent judges using the Nassau 
County Supplement to the Hillegas Composition Scale. The A classes are 
the entering 5th grade classes. The B classes are doing the second semester's 
work of the fifth grade. 

5 A Grade 





School 




Score 


Y 


G 


H 


B 


I 


P 


W 


X 


Total 


I.I 

1-9 

2.8 

3-8 
5-0 
6.0 


2 

6 

II 

8 
2 


I 

15 
22 

3 


3 

30 

5 

I 


14 
23 

I 


4 
II 

13 
4 


I 
9 
9 
9 

3 


3 
II 
16 

3 

I 


II 
22 

7 


3 

23 

85 

143 

28 

2 


Total 


29 


41 


39 


38 


32 


31 


34 


40 


284 


Median 


2.94 


3-55 


392 


3-56 


341 


2.96 


3-53 


377 


3.56 



5 B Grade 





School 




Score 


Y 


G 


H 


B 


I 


P 


VV 


X 


Total 


I.I 




2 


I 


2 




5 






10 


1-9 


5 


10 


12 


12 


6 


13 


2 




60 


2.8 


15 


25 


16 


II 


25 


15 


4 


9 


120 


3.8 


9 


10 


3 


6 


8 




21 


7 


64 


5-0 


4 


I 




I 






9 


7 


22 


6.0 














3 




3 


Total 


33 


48 


32 


32 


39 


i^ 


39 


23 


279 


Median 


311 


2.83 


2.56 


2.74 


2.89 


2.27 


4.02 


3-72 


2.93 



Note. Fiom The Survey of the Schools of Paterson, New Jersey. 1918. 



4- 



QUESTIONS 

What conditions do the above tables show you, a supervisor in charge of 

the elementary schools, to exist in the 5th grade work in composition? 

What possible e.xplanations could you offer? 

What recommendations would you make? 

How would the above facts afifect your supervisory program for that year? 



V C. SUPERVISION— TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
IN SERVICE 

I. Relation of Supervision to Teacher Supply. 

A. Elements controlling the supply of teachers. 

1. Economic. 

2. Educational. 

3. Social. 

B. The effect of the high turnover in teaching. 

1. Reasons for. 

2. Ways of overcoming. 

3. Effect on administration and supervision of city schools. 

C. Responsibility for growth of teachers. 

1. State. 

a. Departments, h. Limitations. 

2. Institutions of higher education. 

a. Kinds of service, h. Coordination with other agents. 

3. City. 

a. Extent of responsibility and determining elements. 

II. Methods of Promoting Growth While Teaching. 

A. Constructive, follow-up supervision. 

1. Amount desirable. 

2. Kind of supervisors. 

3. Technique. 

4. Results to be expected. 

5. Holding supervisors responsible. 

B. Teachers' meetings and local institutes. 

1. Frequency. 

2. Homogeneity of groups. 

3. Methods of conducting. 

4. Kinds of topics studied. 

5. Use and value of demonstrations. 

6. Responsibility of administrative staff. 

C. Educational investigations. 

1. Type of studies. 

2. By whom made. 

3. Use of results. 

4. Relation to City Bureau of Educational Research. 

5. Use of objective scales and measurements. 

6. Use of control groups.- 

D. Teacher participation in making courses of study. 
I. Extent. 2. Methods. 3. Responsibility. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE IIJ 

E. Use and adjustment of textbooks. 

I. Ways in which teachers may assist in selection. 

F. Teacher visiting and leaves of absence. 

1. How frequently given. 

2. How to insure value. 

3. Relation to salar>'. 

G. Community problems and social surveys. 

1. Source of problems. 

2. Teachers' part. 

3. Nature of problems included. 
H. Educational exhibits. 

I. Where held. 2. For whom intended. 

3. Content. 4. Method of selection. 
I. Extension courses, reading circle work and summer schools. 

I. How encouraged. 2. How made useful. 

3. Administrative approval when necessar>-. 
J. Teacher participation on program of teacher promotion. 

1. Extent of responsibility. 

2. Results to be gained. 

III. Teachers, Professionalism and Cooperation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap. xv. 
(See bibliography.) 

2. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap. xvi. 

3. Nutt, H. W. The Supervision of Instruction. Especially Chap, x, xi and xii. 

4. Ruediger, \V. C. Agencies for Improvement of Teachers in Service. United 
States Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 3. 191 1. 

5. Russell, Charles. The Improvement of City Elementary Teachers in Service. 
Teachers College. New York 1922. 

6. Strayer, G. D. A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Chap. xvii. 

7. Strayer' and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. in. 

8. 14th Yearbook of National Society for the Study of Education. Part 11. 

9. i2th Yearbook of National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 67 ff. 



Il8 TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE 

PROBLEM 

An Extract from the Report of the Board of Education, Decatur, III 

teachers meetings at decatur, ill.^ 

Professional Meetings: The professional work of the year sought to build 
upon what had been accomplished the preceding year, hence the work was 
organized and differentiated along lines similar to those pursued the year before. 
The work done will be tersely indicated under the head of each kind of meeting 
held. 

General Meetings: 

The Agencies of the School, September 5, superintendent of schools. 

The Use and Interpretation of Maps, September 25, R. H. Allin, Chicago. 

The Ideal Teacher, November 6 (home of superintendent of schools). Prof. 
W. C. Bagley, University of Illinois. 

Some Essentials of Language Power, December 11, ^pt. W. A. Furr, Jackson- 
ville, 111. 

The New Boy, December 21, A. E. Winship. 

Taking Advantage of the Play Instinct in Arithmetic Work, January 20, Prof. 
C. W. Stone, Farmville (Virginia) State Normal. 

Teaching Children to Study, February 16, Prof. George D. Strayer, Columbia 
University. 

Language in the Grades, February 26 (two lectures), Supt. O. I. Woodley, 
Passaic, N. J. 

Meetings of the Central Illinois Teachers' Association in our city March 19-20. 

Cabinet Meetings: 

November 5: Earhart's Factors in logical study. 

December 10: Earhart's Factors in logical study (completed). 

February 1 1 : The educational situation, Dewey. 

March 1 1 : Ethical principles underlying education, Dewey. 

April 20: Ethical principles underlying education, Dewey (completed). 

May 20: Interest as related to will, Dewey. 

The cabinet meetings were of great value to all. Attendance upon them was 
required of the principals and special teachers only, but any other teachers were 
at liberty to come. With one exception, they were so largely attended that we 
were compelled to provide chairs in one of the large high-school session rooms to 
seat all who came. In these meetings the discussion while more theoretical than 
immediately practical, was always finally focused upon our local problems and 
their solution. Discussion ran free in all of these meetings, making them of great 
inspirational value. 

Grade Meetings: 

Grades i, 3, and 5: September 17, Motivlzing school work. 

Grades l, 3, and 5: October 9, The new copy books and their use, B. D. Berry. 

Grades i, 3, and 5: October 22, Motivizing school work (continued). 

Grades i, 3, and 5: December 4, An organic view of some factors of the school. 

Grades i, 3, and 5: February 4, The second term's work. 

' From Ruediger, W. C, Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers in the Service. U. S. Bureau 
of Education, Bull. No. 3. ipn, P- 80 i. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE IIQ 

Grades i, 3, and 5: April 29, Examination papers in arithmetic. 

Grades 2, 4, and 6: September 18, Motivizing work. 

Grades 2, 4, and 6: October 9, The new copy books and their use, B. D. Berry. 

Grades 2, 4, and 6: October 23, Motivizing school work (continued). 

Grades 2, 4, and 6: December 4, An organic view of some factors of the school. 

Grades 2, 4, and 6: February 5, The second term's work. 

Grades 2, 4, and 6: April 30, Examination papers in arithmetic. 

Grade 7: September 21, Motivizing school work. 

Grade 7: October 9, The new copy books and their use, B. D. Berry, Chicago. 

Grade 7: October 26, Motivizing school work (continued). 

Grade 7: December 4, An organic view of some factors of the school. 

Grade 7: February 8, The second term's work. 

Grade 7: May 3, Examination papers in arithmetic. 

In addition to the above meetings, the first-grade teachers held five meetings 
in a study of primary reading work. Miss Barnett, at the E. A. Gastman School; 
and Miss Montgomery, at the Warren Street School, began a test of the merits 
of the Aldine reading system during the second semester, and two visits to see 
the work of each teacher were made by all of the first-grade teachers. Following 
the observation work, at each visit, problems growing out of the work visited or 
out of primary reading in general were discussed in round table. Near the close 
of the year all of the first and second grade teachers visited Miss Alice Mead's 
first-grade reading work to note the excellent results she was securing in the 
development of her iB reading upon the basis of Mother Goose rhymes. 
Building Meetings: These meetings were held under the direction of the 
principal in each building every four to six weeks. Reports lead me to believe 
these meetings were well planned and very profitable. 
Elementary Schools: Discussions based upon Prof. W. C. Bagley's Classroom 

Management. 
High School: Discussions based upon Prof. DeGarmo's Principles of Secondary 

Education. This discussion was preceded at each meeting by a report, followed 

by discussion, upon articles of educational significance in the current magazines 

The following programs were executed during the school year: 

October 12, 3.30 P.M., in physical laboratory: English in the high school. 
January 14: The sciences. May 12: Some of the problems of administration. 

November 10: Mathematics. March 8: Economics. 

December 9: The languages. April 13: (a) Art; {b) Physical education. 
February 12: History. • Reports in reference to recent conventions. 

But one meeting distinctively for principals was conducted during the year. 
This was a business meeting near the opening of school. 

Also, but one meeting of the janitors was held. At this meeting we considered 
the relation of the janitor's work to the welfare of the school. 

Among the most important meetings of the year were those of the committees 
working on the course of study in the English group of subjects. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Does this program provide adequately for all grades? 

2. Are the topics treated too general? Too specific? Practical? United? 

3. List any changes you would consider desirable. 



VI A. THE STAFF— PREPARATION, SELECTION, 
TENURE AND PROMOTION 

I . Preparation of Teachers for City School Systems. 

A. Relation to the state system of teacher training. 

1. Extent of training given. 

2. Number of students trained. 

3. Provision for elementary, junior and senior high school. 

4. Provision for special teachers, supervisors, etc. 

5. Content and nature of courses given. 

a. Minimal requirements, b. Present tendencies. 

B. City supported teacher training schools. 

1. Relation to state system. 

2. Advantages and disadvantages. 

C. Relation of preparation to state certification. 
I. Principles underlying state certification. 

a. By whom given, h. To whom. c. Kinds. 
d. Renewals, e. Standardization. 

II. Selection of Teachers for City School Systems. 

A. Development of various methods of selection — results. 

B. Principles which should control selection of teachers. 

1. General principles. 

2. Standards which should govern action. 

3. Elements to be considered in selection. 

a. Preparation, h. Experience, c. Personal abilities, d. Health. 

C. The responsibility of the superintendent in the selection of teachers. 

D. Methods of selection from among candidates. 

1. Handling applications. 

a. Form. h. Content, c. Photo. 

2. Interview. 

3. References. 

4. Filing data. 

5. Notifications of election, etc. 

6. Use of employment bureaus of colleges, teachers' agencies, etc. 

III. Tenure of Teachers in City School Systems. 
A. Principles involved in all regulation of tenure. 

1. For whose protection. 

2. To what members of staff applied. 

3. Advantages of secure tenure. 

4. Abuses. 

5. Probation periods. 



THE STAFF — PREPARATION, SELECTION, TENURE AND PROMOTION 121 

6. Relation to dismissal. 

7. Relation to promotion, assignment and supply of new teachers. 

B. Present status of teaching tenure — typical cases. 

C. Desirable regulation and modification. 

IV'. Pro.motion of Teachers in City School Systems. 

A. Definition of promotion in teaching. 

B. Principles which should govern the promotion of teachers. 

1. Quality of service. 

2. Quantity in amount and variety of work. 

3. Eflfect on the individual. 

4. Effect on others. 

5. Means of measuring the bases of promotion. 

C. Relation of supervision to promotion. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bagley, W. C. The Professional Preparation of Teachers. Chap, i, iii, v. 
Carnegie Foundation. New York 1920. 

2. Ballou, F. W. The Appointment of Teachers in Cities. Harvard University 
Press. Cambridge, Mass. 1915. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap, xiv and xvi. 

4. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. C. Source Book. Division vi. Macmillan 
Co. New York 1915. 

5. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education iti the 
United States. Chap. xv. 

6. Evenden, E. S. Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules in the United States. 
pp. 59-63, and 73-74. N. E. A. Washington, D. C. 1919. 

7. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See topics of outline. 

8. Ruediger, W. C. Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers in Service, pp. 
116 f. 

9. Sears, J. B. Classroom Organization and Control. Part vi. 

Note. See other syllabus sheets for teacher rating, supervision, and the like. 



122 THE STAFF — PREPARATION, SELECTION, TENURE AND PROMOTION 

PROBLEM 

Promotion of Teachers ^ 

The Chicago plan for the examination and the promotion of teachers is 
given in the following extracts from the "Rules of the Education Department 
of the Board of Education," adopted May i8, 1910. The maximum salary in 
the lower group is reached in nine years by elementary-school principals, in 
seven years by high-school teachers, and in seven years by elementary-school 
teachers. The upper groups are subject to further increases for fourteen, five, 
and three years, respectively. 

Section 123. Grouping of principals and teachers. There shall be two groups 
of principals; of teachers in high schools; of teachers in elementary schools. 
The groups shall have different salary schedules. Promotion from lower to upper 
group shall, upon fulfilling the requirements, be by vote of the board of education, 
upon recommendation of the superintendent. 

Section 124. Promotion from lower to upper group: elementary principals. 
Elementary principals, who have served a year at the maximum salary of the 
lower group and whose efficiency for the year immediately preceding, as shown 
by the records in the superintendent's office, is good, excellent, or superior, shall 
be eligible to promotion to the upper group upon attaining a mark of 80 per cent, 
or more, in an examination in professional work, including school management, 
psychology, educational principles and methods, and the history of education. 

Section 125. Promotion from lower to upper group: teachers in high schools. 
Teachers in high schools, who hold general or limited certificates, who have served 
a year at the maximum salary of the lower groups, and whose efficiency for the 
year immediately preceding, as shown by the records in the superintendent's 
office, is good, excellent, or superior, shall be eligible to promotion to the upper 
group upon attaining a mark of 80 per cent, or more, in an examination in school 
management, psychology, the history of education, and educational principles 
and methods, particularly in application to students and subject matter in the 
high schools. Only those high school teachers who have complied with the 
requirements for promotion to the upper group shall be eligible for election to 
principalships. 

Section 126. Promotion from lower to upper group: teachers in elementary schools. 
Teachers, regular and special, in the elementary and in the practice schools 
shall be eligible to promotion to the upper group upon fulfilling the three require- 
ments named below: 

1. They shall have served one year at the maximum salary of the lower group. 

2. They shall have received an efficiency rating of good, excellent, or superior for 
the year immediately preceding, as shown by records in the office of the super- 
intendent. 

3. They shall have met one of the following conditions: 

a. They shall have written both the paper in professional study and the 
paper in an academic field required in the promotional examination (sec. 
127), and shall have attained an average of 80 per cent, or more. 

b. They shall have passed the examination in professional study (sec. 127-a) 
and shall hold an elementary principal's certificate. 

1 From Ruediger, W. C, Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers in Service. U. S. Bureau of 
Education, Bui. No. 3, PP- 123 f-. 1911. 



THE STAFF — PREPARATION, SELECTION, TENURE AND PROMOTION 1 23 

c. They shall have passed the examination in professional study (sec. 127-a), 
and shall hold a certificate to teach in the high schools. 

d. They shall have passed the examination in professional study (sec. 127-a) 
and shall hold a certificate to teach German, music, drawing, manual 
training, or household arts. 

e. They shall present certification for five study courses from the Chicago 
Teachers' College Extension. 

Section 127. The promotional examination. The promotional examination for 
all teachers, regular and special, in the elementary schools, shall consist of two 
papers : 

a. A professional paper in psychology, educational principles and methods 
in the elementary schools, and the history' of education. 

b. An academic paper in any one of the fields named below and covering 
work superior in grade to that of the course in the high school: English 
language and literature; general history; physical science; biological science; 
foreign languages (Latin or Greek or German or French or Spanish); 
algebra and geometry; geography (physical, mathematical, and commercial) 
and geology; music; drawing; manual training; household arts; physical 
education (physiology, anatomy and the theory of g>-mnastics). 

Note. Teachers of special subjects shall not select the subject which they teach as the subjects of 
their academic papers. 

An average of 80 per cent shall be required for passing these tests: Provided, 
that no examination mark below 70 shall be considered: and Provided, that if a 
candidate divides the examination the paper taken in the preliminary part shall 
not be credited in the final average unless the mark secured in such paper shall be 
80 per cent or over. 

Examination on Study Courses. Principals and teachers upon written 
notice at least six weeks in advance, stating the study course in which they desire 
to substitute an examination for the certification by the Chicago Teachers' College, 
or by some accredited institution shall be eligible for admission to such an examina- 
tion at the July or the holiday examination for teachers. A mark of 75 per cent 
shall be required in every examination substituted for a study course. 

Section 147. College extension; credits; permanent records. Credits for promotion 
may be made in the college extension, or in any institution approved by the 
superintendent and the principal of the normal school. 

Permanent record of the certification of work done by principals and teachers 
in the college extension or in approved institutions shall be kept in the records 
of college extension: Provided, That not more than two credits shall be recorded 
for any teacher for work done within a calendar year. 

QUESTIONS 

Assuming that you favor promotional examination — 

1. Criticise the above plan in respect to (c) Number of groups; (6) Number 
of increases for each; (c) Subjects to be examined upon; {d) EfTect upon 
teachers. 

2. Should a teacher have to reach maximum in Group I before being allowed 
to take promotional examination? 

3. Make list of any changes you would consider constructive. 



VI B. THE STAFF— SALARIES AND RETIREMENT FUNDS 

I. History of Teachers' Salaries in the United States. 

A. Relation to social development of country. 

B. Relation to economic development of country. 

C. Relation to educational development of country. 

II. Principles Underlying the Payment of Teachers' Salaries 

A. Elements which should be considered: 

1 . Preparation : 

a. Academic, b. Professional. 

2. Experience: 

a. Fields represented, b. Success. 

3. Varying cost of living as to: 

a. Time. b. Place, c. City size. 

4. "Professional overhead" expenses. 

5. Attractiveness of the profession and opportunities for a career. 

6. Distinctions in regard to: 
a. Kind of work. b. Sex. 

7. Provision for recognition of unusual ability. 

8. Provision for growth within the profession. 

B. Use of schedules of salaries. 

1 . Advantages of salary schedules. 

2. Dangers to be avoided. 

3. Elements which a salarj^ schedule should include. 

C. Applications and adjustments of salary schedules. 

1. Freedom of individual city to set maximum standards. 

2. Principles to be incorporated in schedule. 

3. Need for constant revision and adjustment. 

4. Types of adjustments needed. 

III. Relation of State to City Salary Schedules. 

A. Reasons for state's responsibility for salaries. 

B. State participation in paym.ent of teachers. 

1. Results to be desired. 

2. Best methods of state participation. 

3. Portion to be borne by state. 

4. Extent of equalization fund. 

C. Relation to other activities of the state department of education. 
I. Certification. 2. Teacher training. 3. Health. 

4. Buildings. 5. Extension teaching. 6. Other departments. 



SALARIES AND RETIREMENT FUNDS 1 25 

IV' . Teachers' Retirement Funds. 

A. Relation of pensions and retirement funds to teaching. 

1. Effect on personnel of teaching. 

2. Effect on salaries. 

3. Effect on professional advancement. 

B. Principles involved in teachers' retirement funds. 

I. Source of funds. 2. Length of service. 3. Residence. 

4. Relation to salary. 5. Withdrawal equity. 
6. State participation. 7. Number involved. 

C. Present status of this movement with the advantages and disad- 
vantages of each. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Boykin, J. C. and King, Roberta. The Tangible Rewards of Teaching. United 
States Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 16. 1914. 

2. Carnegie Foundation. Seventh and Fifteenth Annual Reports. New York. 

3. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap. xv. 

Evenden, E. S. "Essential Features of a State Salary Law." Educational 
Review, Vol. 60, No. 3, October 1920. 

Evenden, E. S. Teachers' Salaries and Salary Schedules in the United States. 
Chap. v. 

Evenden, E. S. "Fundamental Principles of Grading Teachers' Salaries." 
Teachers College Record, May 1921. Also American Education, April 1921. 
Evenden, E. S. "Teachers' Salary Schedules and Falling Prices." Journal 
of the New York State Teachers' Association. January 1922. 
Furst, C. and Kandel, I. L. Pensions for Public School Teachers. Carnegie 
Foundation, Bui. No. 12. New York 1918. 

Handbook of Life Insurance Annuity Policies for Teachers. Teachers' Insur- 
ance & Aniuiity Association of America. Carnegie Foundation. New York 
1918. 

10. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of FAucation. "Teachers Salaries and Pensions." 

11. Prosser, C. A. The Teacher and Old Age. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside 
Textbook Series). Boston, 1913. 

12. Ryan, W. C. and King, R. State Pension Systems. United States Bureau 
of Education, Bui. No. 4. 1916. 

13. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. i. 



126 



SALARIES AND RETIREMENT FUNDS 



PROBLEM 1 

Criticise the following suggested standards for salary schedules in the 
light of each of the principles just developed. Propose any changes deemed 
desirable or expedient. 



Profes- 
sional 
Prepara- 
tion, Class 



II 

II 

III 

IV 

H 

II 

III 

IV 

I 

II 
III 
IV 



I 

II 
III 
IV 



I 

II 

III 

IV 



II 
III 
IV 



II 
III 
IV 

III 

IV 



For Cities with Over 
100,000 Population 



Mini- I Annual I Maxi- 
mum 1 Increase I mum 



For Cities between 
100,000 and s,ooo 



Mini- 
mum 



Annual 
Increase 



Maxi- 
mum 



For Cities and Villages 
With Less Than s.ooo 



Mini- 
mum 



Annual 
Increase 



Maxi- 
mum 



CLASSROOM TEACHERS 



$1,400 
1,800 
2,000 
2,400 



6x$i50 

10 X 175 

10 X 175 
10 X 175 



$2,300 
3.550 
3.750 
4,150 



?I,200 

1,600 
1,800 

2.200 



6x$i25 


Si,950 


10 X 150 


3,100 


10 X 150 


3.300 


10 X 150 


3,70c 



$1,100 

1,500 
1,700 



6 X $100 
10 X 125 
10 X 125 



$1,700 
2,750 
2,950 



HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS IN JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS ^ 



2,500 
2,700 
3,100 

1,500 
2,000 
2,200 
2,600 



2,000 



10 X 
10 X 
10 X 

8x 
10 X 
10 X 
10 X 



175 
175 
175 



4.250 
4.450 
4.850 



1,700 

2,200 
2,400 
2,800 



8x 
10 X 

10 X 

10 X 



125 
150 
150 
150 



2,700 


1,500 


8 X 100 


2,300 


3,700 


2,000 


10 X 125 


3,250 


3.900 


2,200 


10 X 125 


3.450 


4.300 









SPECIAL SUPERVISORS 



200 


3,100 


1,300 


250 


4.500 


1,800 


250 


4.700 


2,000 


250 


5,100 


2,400 



8x 
10 X 
10 X 
10 X 



175 

200 
200 

200 



2,700 


1,200 


8 X 150 


2,400 


3,800 


1,700 


10 X 175 


3.450 


4,000 


1,900 


10 X 175 


3.650 


4,400 









ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS '' 

(Non-teaching) 15 Regular Classrooms or Less 



4x 300 3,200 1,800 4x 250 2,800 

5 X 350 4,150 2,200 5 X 300 3,700 

6 X 350 4,700 2,400 6 X 300 4,200 

7 X 350 5,450 2,800 7 X 300 4,900 
PRINCIPALS, ELEMENTARY (Non-teaching) 16 or More Regular Classrooms 

JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. Enrollment Less Than 500 ' 



2,400 
2,600 
3,000 



1,700 
2,100 
2,300 


4 X 200 

5 X 250 

6 X 250 


2,500 
3.350 
3,800 



2,400 
3,000 
3,200 
3,600 



4x 300 


3,600 


2,200 


5x 350 


4.750 


2,800 


6x 350 


5.300 


3,000 


7x 350 


6,050 


3,400 



4x 250 


3,200 


2,100 


5x 300 


4,300 


2,700 


6 x 300 


4,800 


2,900 


7x 300 


5,500 


3,300 



4 X 200 

5x 250 
6 X 250 
7x 250 



2,900 
3,950 
4,400 
5,050 



PRiNCiP.ALS, JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. Enrollment between 
500 and 1,200 Pupils ^ 



3,600 
3,800 
4,200 



5 X 350 5.350 3,400 5 X 300 4,9001 

6 X 350 5,900! 3,600 6 X 300 5,400! .... 
7x 350 6,6501 4,000 7x 300 6,loo|.... 
PRINCIPALS, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. Enrollment between 

1200 and 2500 Pupils 



4,000 
4,200 
4,600 



5x 350 
6x 350 
7x 350 



5.750J 3.800 
6,30oj 4,000 
7,050! 4,100 



5.300 
5,800 
6,5001 



5x 300 

6 X 300 

7 X 300 
PRINCIPALS, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. Enrollment more than 2,500 Pupils 

4,6001 6 X 3501 6,7001 4,400 I 6 X 3001 6,20oj I I 

5,ooo| 7 X 350I 7.450I 4,800 I 7 X 300I 6,90o| I I 



1 Class I. Graduates of standard normal schools (2 years beyond high school). Class II. A.B., 
B.S., or its equivalent from approved schools or colleges. Class III. A.M. or its equivalent. Class 
IV. Ph.D. or its equivalent. 

2 Heads of departments should have at least three years experience before receiving minimum. 
' Class I teachers should not teach in or be principals of senior high schools. 

< Teaching principals should receive an additional $200 to Ssoo annually. 
Note. Size groups for cities are only suggestive and schedule may be varied to meet local condi- 
tions by raising or lowering the minimum by Jioo. Where it is necessary to accept teachers 
with less training than Class I, the minimum should be lowered Jioo for each year of training 
below that standard. Each year of training above Class I should be valued at J200 permanent 
increase to salary. (4 summer terms at $50 accepted for i year.) 



SALARIES AND RETIREMENT FUNDS 127 

PROBLEM 2 

The following salary schedule was adopted by the School Board of Fort 
Smith, Arkansas, to be effective September i8, 1922. Criticise this schedule 
in the light of the principles involved in making salary schedules and with 
reference to the particular conditions and problems for Fort Smith. 

1. All teachers will be classified on the basis of academic and professional 
training, as follows: 

Class I. Master's degree (or equivalent) from an approved institution. 
Class 2. Bachelor's degree (or equivalent) from an approved institution. 
Class 3. Normal Diploma (or equivalent) from an approved institution. 

2. Each teacher will be assigned a classification at the time of employment. 
The schedule of each class shall apply thereafter until the maximum is reached, 
subject to the following reservations: A teacher may advance from one classifica- 
tion to another by reason of additional approved preparation. Credit for addi- 
tional preparation will be granted when such additional preparation leads to 
the next higher classification. 

3. Approved experience in other school systems will be recognized at the time 
of employment. 

4. Applicants whose preparation, either professional or academic, does not 
equal or exceed that of class three will not be considered eligible for appointment 
after the adoption of this schedule. 

5. Salary increases will be granted only when earned, and are not to be regarded 
as automatic with increasing tenure. Classroom effectiveness and professional 
progress are the factors to be considered in granting a full or a partial increment. 
Failure to earn a full increment in any year will not operate to reduce the maximum 
attainable under any classification. 

6. The provisions of this schedule apply to all grades. Teachers with equivalent 
training and experience may receive equal salaries whether they teach in the 
secondary schools or in the elementary schools. Teachers with superior training 
are expected to maintain a higher degree of classroom effectiveness than is 
expected of teachers with inferior training. Unless additional training produces 
better classroom results salary recognition for such additional training is not justifi- 
able. 

7. Salaries will be paid on a ten-month basis, at the close of each calendar 
month; provided that in addition to the regular monthly salary for May. teachers 
will be paid for one-half of the month of June. Salary due for the last half of 
the month of June will be paid at the end of the month of September; provided 
further, that teachers who leave the system at the close of the school year shall 
receive salary due for the entire month of June. Teachers who accept reappoint- 
ment and later resign before the opening of the next term of school shall forfeit 
salary due for the last half of the month of June. Teachers who are employed 
for less than the full term of school shall receive the proportion of summer salary 
that their terms of employment bear to the full school term. This salary schedule 
is based on a school year of thirty-six weeks. 

8. There may be held annually a teachers' institute during the week prior to 
the opening of the schools in September. Attendance at said institute may be 
required of all teachers without additional compensation. 



128 SALARIES AND RETIREMENT FUNDS 

9. All teachers are; expected to attend an approved professional summer school 
and to take approved work in such schools not less often than once in four years. 
Leave of absence for professional study will be granted. 

10. All teachers new to this system are on probation for a period of two years. 
Thereafter a teacher who is rated "C" or better may expect annual reappointment 
so long as the other provisions of this schedule and the rules of the Board of 
Education are compiled with. 

Minimum Modal Increments Maximum 

11. Class I — $1,600 • 10 X $100 $2,600 
Class 2 — 1,400 10 X 100 2,400 
Class 3 — 1,000 5x 100 1,500 

12. For each step in rating above or below the modal rating there will be an 
increase or a decrease in the salary increment of $25.00. Thus, if the mode is C, 
a B teacher would receive an increase of $125.00; a D teacher would receive an 
increase of $75.00; an A teacher would receive $150.00, etc. 

Eligibility Rules 

1. No applicant will be eligible for employment as a teacher in the elementary 
schools whose academic and professional training is less than that of a graduate 
of a two-year normal school. (Usually 60 semester hours.) 

2. In general the applicant who has had one or more years of teaching experi- 
ence will be preferred to the applicant who has had no experience. An applicant 
who has had no teaching experience will be considered eligible provided said 
applicant has credit for not less than six semester hours of practice teaching in an 
approved teacher training school. 

3. No applicant will be eligible for employment as a teacher in the secondary 
schools (seventh grade, through twelfth) whose academic and professional training 
is not equivalent to that of a graduate of a four-year standard college or university 
(120 semester hours). Said professional training must include not less than 20 
semester hours in the field of education. 

4. No applicant who is less than twenty-one years of age will be considered 
eligible for appointment as a teacher in this system. 



VII A. PUPILS — SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY 

ATTENDANCE 

I. Relation of Census and Compulsory Attendance to Puulic 
Education. 

A. Democracy and compulsory education of all children. 

B. Relation of school census to public support of education. 

C. Relation of city to state in matters of census and attendance. 

n. The School Census of a City School District. 

A. Desirable qualities of such a census. 

I. Permanency. 2. Continuity. 3. Data included. 4. Accuracy. 

B. Methods of taking school census. 

C. Form in which census records are kept. 

1. Filing systems. 

2. By whom kept. 

D. Methods of keeping census up to date. 

E. Uses to be made of census records. 

111. Compulsory Attendance in City School Districts. 

A. Development of the idea of enforced attendance. 

I. Legal status. 2. Age limits. 3. Enforcement. 

B. Functions of a city department of attendance. 

1 . Variation with size and location of city. 

2. Cooperation with other departments of child welfare. 

C. Organization of attendance department. 

1. Relation to: 

a. Size of city. b. Other departments. 

2. Staff: 

a. Number, h. 'Preparation, c. Duties. 

D. Records and reports which should be kept by this depart men I. 

E. Coordination of attendance department with other "child welfare" 
organizations. 

I\\ Child Employment and Compulsory Education. 

A. Relation of compulsory education to child labor. 

1. Present laws on child labor and the standards adopted. 

2. Present tendencies and degree of enforcement. 

3. Reasons for having attendance department handle this work. 

B. Methods of regulating pupil employment. 

1. Work certificates. 

a. When gi^•en. b. By whom. c. How followed up. 

2. Records made, 



I30 PUPILS — SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 

3. Vocational guidance. 

4. Subsidies for working children. 

V. Continuation and Special Detention Rooms. 

A. Relation of "opportunity schools" to juvenile employment. 

1. Kinds of schools. 

a. Continuation, b. Night, c. Vocational. 
d. Prevocational. e. Trade. 

2. Organization. 

3. Staff. 

4. Support. 

B. Detention schools for habitual truants. 

1. Conditions of commitment. 

2. Length of courses. 

3. Courses offered. 

4. Organizations used. 

5. Results. 

6. Present tendencies. 

C. Relation to juvenile courts and other organizations. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap. xxi. 

2. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See topics. 

3. Nudd, H. W. A Description of the Bureau of Compulsory Attendance of Phila- 
delphia. The Public Education Association. New York 1913. 

4. Report of Director of Attendance, New York City. Board of Education, Bureau 
of Attendance. New York 1916. 

5. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. xii. 

6. Surveys: Baltimore, Butte, St. Paul, Poi'tland, Cleveland, and others. Chap- 
ters on Census and Attendance. 

7. Woodward, C. M. Compulsory School Attendance. United States Bureau of 
Education Bui. No. 2. 1914. 



PUPILS — SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE I3I 

PROBLEM 

The following method of procedure for systematizing the reporting of 
absence in schools is suggested for the New York City Attendance Bureau.^ 

1. Do you consider it too elaborate? In what particulars .■' 

2. Do you consider it inadequate in any respects? What? 

3. Could you increase the efificiency of the department in any wa\- by 
another method of handling this matter? 

To promote the prompt and systematic reporting of absence to the bureau, it 
has recommended that one person in each school be placed in charge of this work 
and all other business transacted by the school with the bureau. The duties 
to be performed in connection with compulsory education enforcement have been 
summarized as follows: 

1. To be entirely familiar with the following by-laws: 

A. Section 54, Subdivision 2a, concerning the reporting of absence. 

B. Section 54, Subdivision 3, concerning the enrollment of children brought 
to school by an attendance officer, and the keeping of records in connec- 
tion with children reported for absence. 

C. Section 45, Subdivision 2a, regulating the discharge of children from 
school. 

2. To select daily the names of children to be reported to the Bureau of At- 
tendance. 

3. To give special attention to that provision of General Circular No. 22, 
issued by the City Superintendent in 1914, which requires the class teacher 
to ascertain the changes that have occurred in the places of residence of 
pupils and to enter these changes in the roll-books. Looking up children at 
incorrect addresses is productive of a great waste of the time of attendance 
officers. 

4. To require that the "Attendance Officers' Investigation and Report" blank 
be made out legibly, accurately, and as completely as the information 
available at the school will permit, and mailed at once to the district office 
of the Bureau of Attendance. 

5. To require that a '"Current Record of Pupil Reported to Bureau of Atten- 
dance," be used for each child on register, including children on parole or 
probation, who was reported for absence two or more times since the 
beginning of the or in the term immediately preceding a current term. 

6. To take care to report to the Bureau of Attendance: 

a. Any pupils excluded from school because of contagious disease who do 
not return at once when quarantine is removed. 

b. Any pupils absent from school, concerning whom physical disability 
is alleged but for whom no physician's certificate can be obtained. 

c. Any pupil discharged because he has received an employment certificate, 
but who has since lost or given up his employment, and remains idle. 
Such children often become a great nuisance to schools and neighbor- 
hoods. They will be followed up regularly when reported. 

d. Any pupil to whom a transfer has been issued, but who is likely to 
attempt to evade school attendance or to delay admission to school. 

' From First Annual Report of the Director 0/ Attendance of New York City. p. 51 f- IQIS- 



132 PUPILS SCHOOL CENSUS AND COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 

e. Any other child concerning whom you have knowledge that he is within 
the compulsory education law. 

7. To arrange to fill out and return promptly to the district supervisor the 
"Report of Principal, "etc., as soon as a request for this report is received, and 
to accompany this report with the duplicate of the Pupil's Record Card. 

8. To give particular attention to children on parole from the truant school 
or on probation as the result of a hearing or prosecution in the Domestic 
Relations Court. 

9. To arrange that the district supervisor be informed at once whenever a 
child is returned to school by a police officer, and that a receipt be given 
to the police officer. 

:co. To provide pupils of compulsory school age legally entitled to be on the 
streets during school hours with official identification cards or other 
protection against arrest by the police. 

11. To discourage the visits of attendance officers to schools, and to 
meet promptly legitimate requests for information, so that the time of 
field officers may be given to field work. 

12. To give on the "Monthly Report of Principal" to the Bureau of Attendance 
in addition to the statistics asked, a statement of any cases too long 
delayed, improperly or carelessly handled by attendance officers, or of 
lack of attention or discourtesy on the part of any person connected with 
the bureau. 

13. To direct that pupils be not sent to the homes of absentees during school 
hours, to induce their more immediate return. 

14. To transmit requests for material aid for destitute pupils direct to the 
Burea of Attendance, 154 East 68th Street, on blanks supplied for this 
purpose. 

15. To take care that a child brought to a school by an attendance officer be 
admitted at once even if the transfer of the child to another school be later 
requested of the district superintendent. 



VII B. PUPILS— CLASSIFICATION AND PROGRESS 
OF CHILDREN 

I. History and Development of Pupil Classification. 

A. Early bases of classification in this country. 

1. Methods used. 

2. Satisfaction with results. 

B. Later bases of classification in order used. 

II. Age-Grade Studies of Children in City Schools. 

A. Early uses of age-grade studies. 

I. Form. 2. Standards taken. 3. What was shown. 

4. Errors which arose from using. 5. Failure to utilize results. 

B. Present forms of age-grade tables. 

1. Accepted standards for — 

a. Entering age. 

b. Extent of normal age span or each promotion period. 

c. When and how ages should be taken. 

d. Relation to time of annual promotions. 

2. Forms and methods of making age-grade tables. 

a. Annual and semi-annual promotions. 

b. Methods of computing ages. 

c. Separation of boys and girls. 

3. Under-age, normal-age, and over-age conditions. 

a. Methods of computing for various bases of promotion. 

b. Conditions found in past studies. 

c. Variations caused In- location, size of city, and other modify- 
ing factors. 

d. Significance and use to be made of over-age data. 

C. Elimination as shown by age-grade studies. 

1. Methods of computing elimination. 

a. Annual and semi-annual promotions, b. Corrections. 

2. Eliminations by: a. Age. b. Grade. 

3. EfTect of locality. 

4. ElTect of school divisions. 

5. EfTect of compulsory attendance age and enforcement. 

6. Studies of causes of withdrawal from school by causes, ages, 
grades, and schools. 

III. Grade-Progress Studies of Children in City Schools. 

A. Value of grade-progress studies to a school system. 

B. Desirable form for grade-progress studies. 

1. Data necessary for such studies. 

2. Merits of various forms for such studies. 

3. Standards used in determining grade-progress conditions for 
various types of school organization. 



134 CLASSIFICATION AND PROGRESS OF CHILDREN 

a. Conditions found in past studies. 

b. Significance and use to be made of grade-progress data. 
C. Interrelations of age-grade and grade-progress studies. 

1. Data necessary. 

2. Most usable forms of presentation. 

3. Relations established from available studies. 

IV. Retardation and Acceleration in City School Systems. 

A. Value of age-grade-progress studies in showing retardation and 
acceleration. 

B. Necessary retardation and acceleration studies. 

I. Reasons for. 2. Incidence of. 3. Methods of correcting. 

4. Provisions made for retarded and accelerated pupils. 

V. Failure and Promotion Studies in City School System. 

A. Existing irregularities and inequalities. 

B. Types of studies and standardization necessary. 

1. Promotions and non-promotions by: 

a. Grades, b. Ages. c. Sex. d. Schools, e. Teachers. 

2. Subject accomplishments and failures by: 

a. Grades, b. Ages. c. Sex. d. Schools, e. Teachers. 

C. Necessary cumulative records for such studies. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. A Report on the School System of Anderson, Indiana. Part IV. 1917-18. 

2. Ayres, L. P. Laggards in Our Schools. Russell Sage Foundation. New 
York 1909. 

3. Bachman, F. P. Problems in .Elementary School Administration. Part 11. 
World Book Co. New York 1915. 

4. Blan, L. B. A Special Stjidy of the Incidence of Retardation. Teachers 
College. New York 191 1. 

5. Evenden, E. S. Classification and Progress of School Children. In Balti- 
more Survey, Vol. 11. Part in. 192 1. 

6. Keyes, C. H. Progress Through the Grades of City Schools. Teachers Col- 
lege. New York 191 1. 

7. Strayer, G. D. Age and Grade Census of Schools and Colleges. United States 
Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 5. 191 1. 

8. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. viil. 

9. Strayer and Engelhardt. Age Computation Tables. Strayer-Engelhardt 
School Record Card Series. C. F. Williams & Son, Inc. Albany, N. Y. 

10. Strayer and Engelhardt. School Record Card Series. C. F. Williams & Son, 
Inc. Albany, N. Y. 

11. Strayer and Thorndike. Educational Administration. Part i. Macmillan 
Co. New York 1913. 

12. Surveys: St. Paul, Cleveland, Salt Lake, Atlanta. Chapters on "Measure- 
ment of Achievement." 

13. Thorndike, E. L. The Elimination of Pupils from Schools. United States 
Bureau of Education, No. 4. 1907. 

14. Van Denburg, T. K. Causes of Elimination of Students in Public Secondary 
Schools. Teachers College. New York 1911. 



CLASSIFICATION AND PROGRESS OF CIIII.UREN I35 

PROBLEM 

Ages Computed As of September ist, 1921. Age-C,r.\ue Table 
Made December 15TH, 1921 



Grade Kc. ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Fr. So. Jr. Sr. 

Ses. (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) (B A) Total 



>3 



4 3I 7 7l 



lyyi I •• I « 4l_ 

18 

19 



2| 3I 



18 



Ages 
i'/2 __!_ I I 

5 I 3l_i_ 4 ' 

5K l_6_ 4l__5. 3 

6 3l_3. i5l_A I I 29 

(>'A .. 3l_i7. I2|_3, 2 ' 38 

7 I I 9l_i2_ 8| 3 I I ■ 36 

7'A .... 3 6|_J2_ 9|_4_ 3 « 38 

8 .... 26 9 I II 12 I 2_ 3 I 46 

S'A .... 1 5 2 5l_io_ 7l_3_ 2 35 

9 3 3 4 5l_Ll ^\_L- 3 I 42 

Oyi I 2 2 5 3l_24_ 8l_3_ » 39 

10 I 2 I 3 5 6 1 13 4 1 3. I 39 

10^ 2 I 32 5 1 12 7I 2 • • I .. 35 

11 2.. 4 3 3 7 I 10 7 l_2_ I 39 

ll>i I .. . I 3 3 5l_8_ 6|_2_ 29 

12 I .. .. I .. 2 2 3 5l_io_ 6 1 i_ 31 

12K J ' ' 3 3 3l_6 5I 3 I 27 



26 



I3>^ ■ •• •• ' ■• ' « 3 I 3!_5. 3l_3_ '' 

14 I ' « 4l__L 3l__L I 20 

14K I 2 I 5|_4_ 5l_£_ 20 

15 I . . 2 2 I 3 1 4 4 !_£_ I 20 

15K I « 4I 3 4I ' I .. .. 15 

16 3 « J 2 | 3 4I ■ • I •■ '5 

i6>^ I 2 2l__2_ 2|_^ .. 9 

17 I I 1 2 3 I 4 il L '* 



14 14 57 56 43 43 42 41 42 42 36 36 28 29 21 22 22 22 18 i8 15 15 »3 '2 8 8 717 
Four years runa from 3 years, 9 months, to 4 years, 3 montba. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What information would >ou, as superintendent of schools of this city, 
obtain from the data in this age-grade table? How might it affect your 
policies? 

2. Construct another table from this table showing for each grade the 
number of pupils who are under-age, normal-age and o\er-age and the 
extent to which they are under or over normal-age. 

3. What does this table show you concerning the amount of retardation and 
acceleration in this system? 

4. How does the situation in this city compare with other cities.-' W hat 
facts about this table must you know in order to be sure of the com- 
parability of the facts used? 



VII C. PUPILS— SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE 

I. The Relation of School Health to Public Education. 

A. Early study and recognition of relation of health to education. 

1. Relation of mortality to educational health campaigns. 

2. Studies of preventable diseases and school work. 

3. Relation of school health service to compulsory school atten- 
dance. 

B. Purposes and results of early health work in schools. 
I. Inspectional. 2. Remedial. 3. Preventive. 

C. Present status of school health service in the United States. 

1 . Legal : 

a. Number of provisions, b. Types of laws. 

2. Extent of practice in American cities. 

II. Forms of School Health Service in American Cities. 

A. Medical inspection of all school children. 

1. Various systems. 

a. By whom done. b. Frequency. 
c. Thoroughness of examination. 

2. Relation of inspection to remedial work and other departments. 

3. Equipment for medical inspection office. 

4. Staff: 

a. Number, b. Preparation, c. Salary. 

B. School clinics. 

1. Kinds of work to be done by school. 

2. Extent of work: 

a. Legal requirements. 

3. By whom done: 

a. Doctor, b. Nurse. 

4. Equipment and space necessary for each clinic. 

5. Records and follow-up by nurses. 

C. Special classes for physically atypical children. 

1 . Kinds : 

a. Prevalence, b. Reasons for segregation. 

2. Special provision necessary for each kind of class. 
a. Room. b. Equipment, r. Teacher. 

3. Courses of study. 

D. School lunches and school cafeterias. 

I. When needed. 2. Methods of conducting. 3. V'alues. 

E. Various forms of health instruction. 
I. Fields covered. 

a. For school children in various divisions, b. For adults. 



CLASSIFICATION AND PROGRESS OF CHILDREN 1 37 

2. Material, methods, and devices used. 

3. Special work in social and sex hygiene. 

F. Supervision of play, athletics, and physical education. 

I. Purposes. 2. Methods. 3. Cumulative records. 

G. All other forms of health work. 

I. Epidemics, etc. 

III. Administration and Control of School Health Service, 

A. Relation to other departments and to superintendent. 

B. Methods of control and of financing. 

C. Relative and absolute costs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Ayres, L. P. and May. Health Work in Public Schools. Cleveland Survey. 
Survey Commission of Cleveland Foundation. Philadelphia, Pa. 1915. 

2. Ayres, L. P., Williams, S. F. and Wood, T. D. Healthful Schools. Chap, 
x-xiv. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside Series). Boston 1918. 

3. Cornell, W. S. Health and Medical Inspection of School Children. Part i. 
F. A. Davis & Co. Philadelphia, Pa. 1913. 

4. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap. xx. 

5. Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene. Table of Contents. Macmillan Co. New 
York 1913. 

6. Gulick, H. and Ayres, L. P. Arguments for Medical Inspection. Russell 
Sage Foundation Bui. No. 54. 

7. Gulick, H. and Ayres, L. P. Medical Inspection of Schools. Russell Sage 
F"oundation. New York 1909. 

8. Hoag, E. P. Organized Health Work in Schools. U. S. Bureau of Education 
Bui. No. 44. 1913. 

9. Hoag, E. P. and Terman, L. M. Health Work in the Schools. Table of Con- 
tents. Houghton Mifflin Co. (Riverside Series). Boston 1914. 

10. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See topics. 

11. Rapeer, L. W. Educational Hygiene. Table of Contents. Chas. Scrib- 
ner's Sons. New York 19 15. 

12. Rapeer, L. W. School Health .Administration. Table of Contents. Teach- 
ers College. New York 1913. 

13. Russell Sage Foundation. What American Cities Are Doing for the Health of 
Children. Bui. No. loi. Russell Sage Foundation. New York City. 

14. Terman, L. M. The Hygiene of the School Child. Table of Contents. 
Mifflin Co. (Riverside Series). Boston 1914. 



138 CLASSIFICATION AND PROGRESS OF CHILDREN 

PROBLEM 

Suggested Duties of the School Nurse ^ 

1. To assist the medical inspector or teacher in examining children and in 
keeping records. 

2. To visit the homes of those needing treatment and to urge its necessity on 
the parents. 

3. To watch for any evidence of contagious diseases or conditions in the school, 
and when found to notify superintendent, principal, teacher, or medical inspector. 

4. To detect and refer to the family physician, medical inspector or dentist 
any evidence of eye, ear, nose or throat trouble or other physical or mental defects. 

5. To render first aid in emergency cases occurring in schools and to see that 
child is taken either to its home or to the family physician. 

6. To report to the superintendent of schools or principal any error she may 
detect as to light, heat, and ventilation in the schools or any improper seating 
or other insanitary conditions. 

7. To follow up recommendations of family physician, dentist, or medical in- 
spector, and to inform the superintendent of schools or principal of results 
obtained. 

8. To follow up absentees occasioned by medical inspection, or where contagious 
diseases or conditions may be suspected. 

9. To accompany children in special cases with written permission of parent 
or guardian, to hospital, dispensary, family physician, oculist, or dentist, and to 
secure from such a report as to services rendered to pupils. 

ID. To investigate and improve home conditions where necessary by instructing 
children and parents in matters of personal and home hygiene and to bring home 
and school closer together. 

11. To investigate reasons for truancy and to do whatever may be possible to 
remove home causes. 

12. To keep employers and parents informed regarding child labor, compulsory 
attendance, medical inspection, vaccination and other laws bearing upon the 
health of the school child. 

13. To cooperate with physicians, dentists, school authorities and others in 
better conserving the health of the child and improving its environment, both at 
home and at school. 

14. To perform such other duties as may from time to time be prescribed by 
the board of education or by the medical inspector. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What training should be required of nurses having the above duties? 
If adequately trained, would they be able to do more of the duties now 
done by the physicians? 

2. Is there too much reporting and record keeping required? Why? 

3. Should this work be under the direction of the Department of Education 
or the Department of Health? Give arguments for both plans. 

4. What are the tentative standards you would set up for the staff necessary 
for the health service work in a city with about 10,000 children in average 
daily attendance? 

' From — The University of the State of New York, The State Department of Education, Medical 
Inspector of Schools. — j3n-oi5-sooo (7-10421). 



VII D. PUPILS—EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND 
SPECIAL CLASSES 

I. Public Education and Individual Differences. 

A. Extent of failures to provide for individual differences. 
I. Reasons for: 

a. Educational, b. Economical. 

B. Extent of individual differences. 
I . Examples : 

a. From special duties, b. From surve\s of achievement. 

C. Determining factors in individual differences. 

I. Number. 2. Extent. 3. Modifiability. 4. Control. 

D. Effects of individual variation on school work. 

II. Methods of Determining Extent .\nd Kind of Individual Dif- 
ferences. 

A. Methods used in past, and results. 

B. Recent tendency toward scientific determination. 

1. Use of tests for the individual. 

a. Various tests used. b. What tests show. c. Uses of these. 
d. Technique of giving, e. Limitations of present tests and 
others needed. 

2. Use of group tests. 

a. Formal examinations: 

(i) X'alue. (2) Limitations. 

b. Educational tests and scales. 

(i) Advantage. (2) Limitations. (3) .Administration. 
(4) Correlations. 

c. General intelligence tests: 

(i) Kinds. (2) \'alue. (3) Accuracy. 

3. Complex indexes of maturity, ability, etc., which indicate in- 
dividual variations. 

III. Methods of Special Classific.\tion. 

A. Promotion and non-promotion schemes. 

B. Plans primarily for providing vanning rates of progress. 

C. Development of classes for special groups. 

IV. Organization and Administration of Special Classes. 
.\.. Variety of groups needing special attention. 

I. Mental. 2. Social. 3. Special interests. 4. Environmental. 
B. Conditions under which segregation and special classes are desir- 
able. 



140 PUPILS EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND SPECIAL CLASSES 

C. Results of classes which have been organized. 
I. On pupils. 2. Parents. 3. School. 

D. Administration of such classes. 

1. Teachers: 

a. Preparation, b. Salary. 

2. Support: 

a. Relation to remainder of system. 

b. Methods of providing special equipment. 

3. Instructional and other equipment necessary for various types of 
rooms. 

E. Advantages to be gained and progress to be made in caring for these 
groups. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Coy, Genevieve L. Special Classes for Gifted Children. In Preparation. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap, xviii. 

3. Gary, Indiana, Survey. Measurement of Classroom Products. Chap. viii. 
General Education Board. New York 1918. 

4. Goddard, H. H. School Training of Defective Children. Table of Contents. 
World Book Co. 1914. 

5. Holmes, W. H. School Organization and the Individual Child. Chap, i and 
Index. The Davis Press. Worcester, Mass. 1912. 

6. Homes, W. H. "Plans of Classification in Public Schools." Pedagogical 
Seminary, Vol. xviii, p. 475. 

7. Huey, E. B. Backward and Feeble-Minded Children. Chap, i-iv inclusive. 
Warwick & York. Baltimore, Md. 1912. 

8. McCall, W. A. How to Measure in Education. Part i. 

9. Strayer and Thorndike. Educational Administration, Part i. 

10. Terman, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. Part i. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. (Riverside Series). Boston 1916. 

11. Terman, L. M. Intelligence of School Children. Table of Contents. Hough- 
ton Mifflin Co. Boston 1919. 

12. Trabue, M. R. and Stockbridge, F. P. Measure Your Mind. Chap. i-iv. 
Doubleday Page & Co. Garden City, New York 1920. 

13. Tredgold, A. F. Mental Deficiency. Chap, i, 11, iii and v. Wm. Wood & 
Co. New York 1920. 

14. U. S. Commission of Education. Report of 1898-gQ. pp. 302-356. 

15. Van Sickle, Witmore & Ayres. Provisions for Exceptional Children. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bui. No. 3. 191 1. 

16. Whipple, Guy M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Chap, i-ili, 
inclusive. Warwick & York. Baltimore, Md. 1915. 

17. Witmer, L. The Special Class for Backward Children. Table of Contents. 
Psychological Press. Philadelphia, Pa. 191 1. 

18. Yerkes, R. M. Psychological Examining in United States Army. Memoirs 
of National Academy of Science. See Table of Contents. Vol. xv. Gov- 
ernment Printing Office. Washington, D. C. 192 1. 



PUPILS — EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND SPECIAL CLASSES I41 

PROBLEM 1 

An Experiment in Grading Children ^ 
Miss Elizabeth A. Irwin, of the Public Education Association of New York, 
is conducting an experiment in Public School No. 64 whereby every child 
who enters is tested psychologically and physically "in such a way that no 
talent, no defect, no individual need would go un-noted." From this sorting 
have come, as was anticipated, the following types of classes: 

I. Terman Classes, for very superior and gifted children. A special en- 
riched curriculum is provided which obviates the skipping of grades by 
bright children. These comprise four classes with registers of 25 each. 
II. Slightly above the Average Classes, for children able to do about the 
same work but a little more intensively than the average and occasionally 
to make an extra term. These comprise seven classes with registers of 
from thirty to forty each. 

III. Average Classes, for children mentally and physically normal. These 
comprise seven classes with registers of about forty each. 

IV. Slightly below the Average Classes, for slower children, who are not 
definitely backward. These classes exist only where the grades are large 
enough in number for three regular groups. Not all grades have them, 
therefore there are at present but two classes, with registers of forty each. 

V. Opportunity Classes, for children definitely backward but not mental 
defectives. This group is most in need of a special curriculum. A begin- 
ning has hardly been made in handling them. The registers are smaller 
than in the average classes. The register does not exceed thirty, and espe- 
cially patient teachers have been assigned. There are at present three 
classes of this character. 
VI. Observation Ungraded Classes, for children much below the average in 
mentality or in response to school demands. Some of them are actually 
mental defectives. Others return to the regular grades after a term or so 
of observation, special care, medical attention and individual teaching. 
There are now five classes with registers of fifteen each. 
VII. Nutrition Classes, for children who are underweight and need special 
physical attention. Health is made the centre of the curriculum. Home 
visits and mother's classes are used to get necessary attention to construct 
health habits. There is now but one class with a register of ten to twelve. 
VIII. Neurotic Classes, for children who are not mental defectives, but be- 
havior problems, temperamentally peculiar, or in need of a period of study 
and adjustment. There is now but one class with a register of ten to twelve . 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the arguments justifying such a classification? Are they reliable 
enough to base making different courses of study for the groups? 

2. What are the administrative problems involved in such a scheme of classi- 
fication? How may they best be met? Are any of these problems con- 
cerned only with initiating the work? 

3. To what extent would you advocate such classification in public schools? 

4. On what basis would you secure support for such work? 

' From — The Public and the Schools — An Experimental School No. 69. May 29, 1920. Public 
Education Association. New York City. 



142 PUPILS — EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND SPECIAL CLASSES 

PROBLEM 2 

The following is part of the report of the Department of Measurement of 
Intelligence for Louisville, Kentucky, for the year 1918-19. 

Deliquent Boys 

All the boys of the special school were examined for mentality during February 
and March, 1919. These boys were sent to this class from the juvenile court and 
from the schools of the city where they have been problematic cases. They were 
in two classes, thirty-nine were in the upper division and thirty-one in the lower. 
The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon scale was used to determine intelli- 
gence. The range of chronological age in the upper division is from 12.3 years to 
16.5 years with a median of 14 years. The mental age ranges from 9.2 years to 
16.7 years with a median of 14. i. The intelligence quotients range from 64% to 
123%. Two of these boys who were thirteen and thirteen years and two months 
of age, respectively, passed the test for average adult. They are boys of superior 
intelligence; seven are high normals, fifteen are average normals, nine are of 
inferior intelligence, three are very inferior, and three are doubtless feebleminded. 

In the lower class of the special school 31 children were examined. The chrono- 
logical ages ranged from 10.4 years to 15.7, with a median of 13.5 years. The 
mental ages range from 8.5 to 14.7 years, with a median of 11.5 years. The in- 
telligence quotients range from 51.8% to 120%. One child is of superior intelli- 
gence, two are high normals, five are average normals, ten are of "inferior intelli- 
gence," ten are "very inferior," and three are doubtless feebleminded. 

Of the 70 boys in the school at the time the examination was made 45.7% are 
of average intelligence and above, 54.3% are below average intelligence. Includ- 
ing in the percentage of the average those of "inferior intelligence," 72.8% are 
above "very inferior intelligence" and 27% are "very inferior" and below. 

The statistics show the importance and the difficulty of the delinquent problem. 
Almost half, 45.7%, are boys who could make a success in life if rightly guided. 
This is a significant problem in itself for these boys are those who have failed in 
the regular school, either because the school did not meet their needs or because 
their home environment was against them. In the case of children of inferior 
intelligence the problem is even more difficult. Evidently another class should be 
formed of the 27% who are so much below normal. It must be very difficult to 
handle, in the same classes boys of superior intelligence and those who are feeble 
minded. That the teachers who are working with these boys are succeeding is a 
tribute to their ability. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the educational value of such work as the abo\'e? 

2. How may it be justified before a community- interested in lower taxes? 

3. What should be the relation of such work to the administrative organiza- 
tion of the school system? 

4. What criticisms would you make on the above work? 

5. Outline the composition of the staff which you would want to handle the 
measurement work in a city of 250,000. 



VII E. PUPILS— SUPPLEMENTARY AND EXTRA 
SCHOOL EDUCATION 

I. The Increasing Need for Supplementary Education. 

A. Reasons why schools must assume extra responsibilit>-. 

1. Social changes. 

0. Foreign population, b. Family life. c. Li\ing conditions. 
d. Use of leisure. 

2. Economic. 

a. Urban concentration, h. Di\ision of labor. 
c. New methods of production. 

B. What has been done to meet these needs? 

I. By schools. 2. By special societies. 3. By philanthropists. 

4. By industrial concerns. 5. B> state agencies. 
6. By national agencies. 

II. Evening and Continu.\tion Schools. 

A. Purposes of such schools — for whom intended. 

B. Nature of work given. 

C. Administration: 

I. Support. 2. Teachers. 

111. Adult Education and Americanization. 

A. Methods emplo\ed. 

I. Regular and short courses. 2. Lecture and entertainment series 

3. Special meetings. 4. Specific publications. 

B. Administration. 

I. Support. 2. Teachers. 3. Methods of securing attendants. 

4. Relation to other city agencies interested in same problem. 

5. Completion certificates and graduation exercises. 

I\'. X'ocATioNAL Counselling and "F"ollow-Up" Work in City Schools. 

A. F'arly introductions of this type of work into the schools. 

B. Present need for this type of school ser\ice. 

I. Organization necessar\'. 2. Relation to other departments. 
3. Traming of teachers. 4. Technique of work. 

5. Necessary- records. 

\'. Visiting Teachers in City School Systems. 

.\. Histor\' and description of this form of service. 

B. Special functions performed by visiting teachers. 

1. Relation to class teachers, principals and others. 

2. Relation to other child welfare agencies. 

C. Organization of visiting teacher work in cities of ^•arious sizes. 



144 PUPILS — SUPPLEMENTARY AND EXTRA SCHOOL EDUCATION 

VI. Extra School Educational Agencies. 

A. Classification of these activities. 

1. Activities developing directly from school work. 

2. Activities concerned primarily with health and recreation. 

3. Activities primarily social in their nature. 

4. Activities primarily concerning teachers. 

5. Other agencies with which schools may cooperate. 

B. Various methods of administering the school's participation in these 
activities. 

C. Present practices and desirable extension. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Berkson, I. B. Theories of Americanization: A Critical Study. Chap, i-iii 
inclusive. Teachers College. New York 1920. 

2. Bourne, R. S. The Gary Schools. Especially Chap, i and ir. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. (Riverside Textbook Series). Boston 1920. 

3. Breckinridge, S. P. New Homes for Old. Chap. viii. Harper & Bros. 
New York 192 1. 

4. Carney, Mabel. Country Life and Country School. Row, Peterson & Co. 
New York 19 12. 

5. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap, xviii 
and Index. 

6. Daniels, J. America Via the Neighborhood. Especially Chap, viii and ix. 
Harper & Bros. New York 1920. 

7. Davis, P. and Schwartz, B. Immigration and Americanization. Particu- 
larly Book II. (Extensive bibliography.) Ginn & Co. New York 1920. 

8. Detroit. Americanizing a City. National Americanization Committee. 
New York 1915. 

9. Loomis, Frank D. Americanization in Chicago. Chicago Community Trust. 

10. National Americanization Committee. Several pamphlets have been issued. 

11. Park, R. P. and Miller, H. A. Old World Traits Transplanted. Table of 
Contents. Harper & Bros. New York 1921. 

12. Portland, Ore. Survey. Part 11. World Book Co. Yonkers, N. Y. 1915. 

13. Speek, P. A. A Stake in the Land. Part 11. Harper & Bros. New York 
1921. 

14. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Treacher. Chap, xiil and xv. 

15. Talbot, Winthrop. Americanization. Table of Contents. H. W. Wilson 
Co. New York 191 7. 

16. Thompson, F. V. Schooling of the Immigrant. Harper & Bros. New York 
1920. 

17. The Visiting Teacher in the United States. Published by Public Education 
Association of New York City. June 192 1. 



PUPILS — SUPPLEMENTARY AND EXTRA SCHOOL EDUCATION I45 

PROBLEM 

The following outline was prepared by C. H. Paull, Service Manager, 
Ludlow Manufacturing Associates, Ludlow, Mass. 

Organization of English Classes In Industry 

1. Where possible there should be a distinct division of responsibility between 
the industry and the constituted public educational agencies of the community. 

2. The public educational agencies should supply instruction; the industry 
should supply the mechanical detail to be enumerated later. A careful study 
of the detailed division of responsibility will show that to each agency is 
assigned those duties which it can most effectively perform. 

3. Functions and responsibilities which most logically fall to industry. 

a. Sincere interest on part of management. The management must be com- 
mitted to the idea of developing English classes for its workers as a care- 
fully considered labor policy which it will carry on without expecting 
sudden or spectacular results. 

h. Minor executives must be convinced that there is a purpose behind the 
establishment of English classes. Principles as well as detail should be 
carefully discussed with foremen in conference before any attempt is made 
toward the recruiting or developing of English classes. The foreman by 
his intimate contact with workers can do much toward the success or 
failure of English classes. 

c. The responsibility for organizing the work which the industry is to per- 
form should be placed with the industrial relations department. If this 
department has a division in charge of education, the work should be 
assigned to this division. In smaller organizations the employment man- 
ager may have general oversight. The personality of the individual means 
much in this work. 

d. A survey of the problem within the industry. While the cooperation of the 
local educational agencies may be helpful in this work, the actual per- 
formance can best be carried through by the industry because of the 
records which it has. Study should be made on the basis of degrees of 
ability to speak English, literacy in own language and literacy in English. 
Nationality, sex, age, marital state, residence, length of time in the country 
should also be among the items noted. Foremen can be very helpful in 
collecting such cjf this material as is not available in a central file. 

e. A careful campaign of recruiting should be instituted. Here the foreman 
can be of inestimable value because of his personal contact with employees. 
His work may be supplemented by posters, addresses, recruiting com- 
mittees among the racial groups, personal notes, etc. 

/. Physical equipment can usually best be provided by the industry because 
of the desirability of having classrooms near to the men's work. Within 
the plant rooms should be located away from noise. They should be well 
lighted and ventilated, and should be equipped with furniture — not ex- 
pensive but suited to adults. Textbooks and incidental materials may be 
supplied either by the public schools or by the industry. 

g. As a legitimate part of English class activity pupils should be acquainted 
with sources and destinations of materials used in their industry, processes 



146 PUPILS — SUPPLEMENTARY AND EXTRA SCHOOL EDUCATION 

of manufacture, accident and health hazards. The industry can give val- 
uable aid in developing supplementary lessons covering these points. 
Such lessons should never be given undue prominence in a course, as they 
cover only the employment interests of the workers. 

h. A carefully organized system of follow-up of absentees is important in main- 
taining regular attendance. Follow-up should be prior to the next meeting 
of the class, and may be entrusted to the foremen, or may be carried on by 
a member of the industrial relations department or a teacher in cooperation 
with the foreman. 

i. In the light of experience it is doubtful whether compulsory attendance is 
ever desirable except where the law provides for the schooling of minors. 

j. The question of payment for attendance at English classes is one which 
cannot be decided arbitrarily. In most cases it seems desirable for men to 
attend on their own time. In some cases conditions of work make it almost 
impossible for men to attend English classes unless they are excused for a 
period during their working day. 

k. The work of English classes may well be supplemented by a plant paper, 
bulletin board notices, or special talks to advanced students by members 
of the organization. 

/. Above all things an industry must never make the mistake of using its 
English classes directly or indirectly to further purposes which might in any 
way be called into question as purely selfish or shortsighted, 
w. If the work of the English class can be carried further into special training 
in the industry, the industrial relations department may well function in 
seeing that the more ambitious pupils have further opportunities. It is 
unwise, however, to make promises as to future advancement or increase 
in pay to persons entering English classes. 
4. Functions and responsibilities which most logically fall to public educational 

agencies. 

a. The community through its established educational system should provide 
a competent supervisor of English classes in industry who will thoroughly 
appreciate the point of view of industry and who through personality and 
training can maintain classes harmoniously and effectively. This person 
shall carry out the work assigned to the public schools. He may be the 
superintendent of schools in a small community, or a specially appointed 
director in a larger one. 

b. Developing courses of study. No single course or series of courses in 
English can be established as best fitted for all conrmunities. All courses, 
however, should cover four types of interests, — (i) personal, (2) home, 
(3) community, (4) work. Care should be taken to keep these interests in 
proper balance. 

c. The selection of teachers is perhaps the most important step in the de- 
veloping of English classes, if it can be said that any one step is most 
important. At all events, whatever else is done will come to naught if 
teachers are not wisely selected. Personality is the quality to be con- 
sidered in a teacher. Provided special training is offered there are good 
arguments in favor of teachers selected from the local teaching force and 
other good arguments in favor of teachers selected from employees in the 
plant. 

d. Training of teachers should be undertaken regardless of previous experi- 



PUPILS — SUPPLEMENTARY AND EXTRA SCHOOL EDUCATION I47 

ence. The teaching of English classes is sufficiently specialized to demand 
special preparation for all. Regular discussion meetings should also be 
held throughout the English class season. 
e. Supervision of teaching is just as essential as in any other public school 
activity. Such supervision should be coordinated with discussion meetings. 
/. Development of standards of attainment so that pupils may be graded 

and promoted effectively. 
g. In cooperation with the industry adequate records of accomplishment 
should be kept so that pupils may be carried from class to class as they are 
qualified. 
/;. The community shall pay the salaries of the director of English classes and 
of all teachers. Such salaries should be adequate for the services rendered. 
/. Teachers must be furnished at a time most convenient to the men. Ex- 
perience has shown this time most commonly to be at the close of the day 
when the men can go directly from their work to a convenient classroom. 
In some cases classes are held at noon or prior to beginning work. 
./. Instruction should be offered from two to four times a week to a given 
group. An hour is perhaps the best approximate length for a teaching 
period. A longer time is not suited to men at the close of a day's work, 
and should the period be materially shortened teachers would be seriously 
handicapped in offering a well-rounded lesson. 
k. Citizenship training may well supplement the work in the English classes 

where pupils are sufficiently advanced. 
/. In all teaching there should be no compromise in the teaching of uni- 
versally accepted ideals of American citizenship. 
m. Where teachers can link class work with other community activities, this 
should be done. The English class is the place where all legitimate inter- 
ests meet. 
n. Granting of certificates for the completion of specified amounts of work. 
This function naturally suggests commencement exercises in which the 
community and the industry' can cooperate. 
In considering any outline of procedure for the development of English classes 
in industry it is impossible to outline a plan which "works best" in all com- 
munities. Local history, racial groups, individuals, and a dozen other factors 
enter into the problem. This outline is intended merely to offer a structure 
sufficiently adequate and general to form a working plan about which to build 
up a const ructi\e piece of work. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Is the above plan adequate? 

2. What changes would you make? Why? 

3. What dillticulties of administration are presented? How would you meet 
them? 



VIII. MATERIALS— TEXTBOOKS, SUPPLIES, AND 
INSTRUCTIONAL EQUIPMENT 

I. Textbooks. 

A. The place of textbooks in modern education. 

1. Stages in development of textbooks. 

2. Relation of books used to course of study used. 

B. Methods of selecting or adopting textbooks in cities. 

1. Variety of practices. 

2. Relation to other adoptions. 
a. State, b. Other cities. 

3. By whom selection is made. 

4. Principles governing the selection of books. 

a. Score cards for books, h. Extent and frequency of adoptions. 

C. Methods of purchasing textbooks. 

I. Individual ownership. 2. Cooperative buying. 

3. "Free" textbooks. 

4. Advantages and disadvantages of each plan. 5. Relative costs. 

II. School Supplies. 

A. Supplies furnished by the school system. 

I. What supplies should be furnished? 2. How selected? 
3. How purchased? 4. How distributed? 

B. Supplies purchased by individual pupil. 

1. Regulation for uniformity — when desirable? 

2. Methods of securing prompt and adequate supply. 

3. INIethods of price regulation. 

III. Instructional Equipment. 

A. Development of instructural equipment and devices. 
I. Recent tendencies. 2. Dangers of over-emphasis. 

B. Standards in instructional equipment. 

1. Methods of determining standards. 

a. Consensus of practice, h. Scientific experiments. 
c. Inventions and improvements. 

2. Standards that are now available in the various fields and the 
degree of their acceptance. 

a. Kindergarten and "informal" primary rooms. 
h. Classrooms. 

(i) Elementary (2) Intermediate (3) High School. 

c. Laboratories and special classrooms. 

d. Rooms for general use. 

e. Portable equipment for use in any of the room.s. 



TEXTBOOKS, SUPPLIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL EQUIPMENT I49 

C. Methods of selecting equipment and of determining the amount or 
number needed. 

D. Where various kinds of equipment may be secured. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Brown, J. F. Slate Publication of School Books. Macmillan Co. New 
York 19 1 5. 

2. Dexter, E. G. History of Education in the United Stales. Chap. xiv. Mac- 
millan Co. New York 1904. 

3. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, D. Administration of Public Education in United 
States. Chap. xiii. 

4. Georgia Report of School Book Investigating Committee. Atlanta, Ga. 1914. 
Also Journal of Education, Vol. 80, p. 40. 

5. Hall-Quest, A. L. The Textbook. Chap, i-iv, inclusive (chapter bibliog- 
raphies). Macmillan Co. New York 1919. 

6. Huey, E. B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Chap xx and x.xi. 
Macmillan Co. New York 1921. 

7. Monohan, A. C. Free Textbooks and State Uniformity. U. S. Bureau of 
Education, Bui. No. 36. 191 5. 

8. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. See Index. 

9. New York (State). Cost of Free Textbooks. J. B. Lyon Co. Printers. Al- 
bany, New York 19 15. 

10. Ontario Textbook Commission Report. Report on the Preparation and Cost of 
Textbooks in the Province of Ontario. Ontario Education Department 1914- 

11. Parker, S. C. History of Modern Elementary Education. Index. Ginn & 
Co. New York 191 2. 

12. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. 11. 



150 TEXTBOOKS, SUPPLIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL EQUIPMENT 

PROBLEM 

Criticise the following plan for adopting textbooks which was proposed by 
Superintendent Condon, of Cincinnati, in 1916.^ Justify your criticism and 
suggestions. 

The slogan "Children First" should be the principal guide in the selecting of 
all books. The Ohio code provides that textbooks must be adopted between 
February ist and August ist, 1916, for a five year period. The Cincinnati board 
approved a plan to have representative committees of teachers and principals 
appointed by the superintendent who should carefully consider the course of 
study and the textbooks now in use as well as all others published in the same 
subjects and make recommendations to the superintendent not later than May 
1st. The superintendent shall then carefully consider the reports and report to 
the board not later than July 1st, and in his report he shall state whether the 
books were recommended by the committees and reasons for any disagreement 
between his report and that of the committees. He shall not recommend any book 
which has not been considered by the committee. The board shah make the for- 
mal adoption but no book shall be adopted which has not been considered by 
both the superintendent and the teachers. 

Two executive committees of seven members each, six elementary principals 
and one member of the Teachers College, were appointed to have general executive 
direction of the subject; one committee on basal texts and one on supplementary 
education. The city was divided into three sections and the grades into three 
groups, I to 3, 4 to 5, and 6 to 8. From each group in each section committees of 
five were appointed in the different subjects, thus making nine committees in 
each subject. This resulted in a careful study of each subject by forty-five 
teachers of that subject. All publishers of recognized standing were informed of 
the plan of procedure and were invited to submit samples for the consideration 
of the committees. 

The executive or general committee mapped out and sent to all committees 
a plan for the systematic consideration of each subject and blanks for reports. 
The suggestions for reading and the report form follow: 

Points to be Considered in Judging the Quality of Texts in Re.\ding 

i. content 
(i) Thought 

a. Rich in variety. 

b. Arranged in series; seasonal, social, ethical, civic, etc. 

c. Adapted to needs of pupil and community. 

d. Literary style and quality. 

e. Well arranged and systematic development of phonics. 

(2) Form 

a. Vocabulary arranged to secure sufficient repetition yet without sacrifice 
of thought. 

b. Vocabulary well graded. 

1. Within each book. 

2. Within each series. 

c. Paragraphing. 

'From Eighty-seventh Annual Report of Superintendent of Schools. Cincinnati, Oliio, 1916, p. 60 f. 



TEXTHOOKS, SUPPLIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL E(,/UIPMI:nT I5I 
II. MECHANICAL MAKE-UP 

(1) Binding 

a. Durability. 

b. Attractiveness. 

c. Paper 

1. Quality 

2. Gloss-lacking 

(2) Type 

a. Size 

b. Clearness 

c. Width of leading 

(3) Lines 

a. Arrangement of lines, so that natural word groups are not broken. 

(4) Illustrations 

a. At top or bottom or on separate page. 

b. Attractive, clear, simple and full of action. 

c. Educative, and suitable for grades. 

The forms for the committee reports follow: 

Report ok Committees ox Examination of Textbooks 

Group Subject 

Grade Date 



Texts Examined 


Title 


Author 


Publisher 







































Best Fiv'e of the New Texts Examined and the Text Xow in Use, 
Arranged in the Order of Merit 



Order of Merit 


Title 


Author 


Publisher 


I 








2 








?> 








4 








5 








6 









152 TEXTBOOKS, SUPPLIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL EQUIPMENT 

Have all members of the Committee taken part in the above listing? 

If not, how many? How many favor No. i for first place? 

If not unanimous, which other texts are preferred for first place, and how 
many are in favor of each? 

How many agree to the position assigned to the present text in comparison 
with the others examined? 

If not unanimous in this respect, how many favor some other position and 
what? - 

Detailed reasons why the Committee favor 

text in for first place on the list. 

(signed) 

Chairman. 



IX A. ACCOUNTING— PUPILS AND STAFF 

I. Relation of Adequate Records to Public Education. 
A. Ways in which school support depends on records kept. 
fe. Principles to be observed in keeping school records in order that 
they : 

1. Show the real situation. 

2. May be used for legitimate publicity. 

3. May be used for diagnostic purposes. 

4. May be correctly interpreted by others. 

5. Secure maximum educational benefits. 
C. For whom and by whom records are made. 

1. Superintendent's primary responsibility. 

2. Necessary cooperation of entire staff as well as people of the 
community. 

II. Necessary Records and Reports in a School System. 

A. Relation of size of city to number of reports needed. 

B. Records for "child accounting." 

1. List of necessary records. 

2. Items to be included on each form. 

3. Most desirable forms: 

a. For making records, h. For use. c. For filing. 

4. Administration of each kind of record. 
a. By whom made. h. By whom kept. 
c. How transferred, d. How corrected. 

5. Records and reports occasionally desirable although not included 
in above list of "necessary records." 

C. Records for "teacher accounting." (Same as B.) 

D. Records for "super\'isor accounting." (Same as B.) 

E. Records for "janitor accounting." (Same as B.) 

F. Records for auxiliary agencies and ^societies cooperating with the 
schools. (Same as B.) 

G. Records of board meetings, departments, group meetings, teachers' 
councils and other staff undertakings. (Same as B.) 

III. Uses to be Made of School Records. 

A. For publicity which results in more cooperation and support. 

1. By whom done. 

2. To whom records are available. 

B. For continuous self survey. 
I. Form necessary. 



154 PUPILS AND STAFF 

2. By whom made. 

3. Possibilities of such surveys. 

C. For students of education to use in studying educational problems. 

IV. The "Drudgery" of School Records and Reports and Its Relation 
TO Lack of Understanding of Their Purpose and Use. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Ayres, L. P. Child Accounting in Public Schools. Cleveland Survey. Sur- 
vey Commission of Cleveland Foundation. Philadelphia, Pa. 1915. 

2. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap. xxvi. 

3. Button, S. T. and Snedden, D. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap. xxx. 

4. Engelhardt, N. L. Score Card for Records and Reports of a City System. 
Chap. XV. 

5. Finney, R. L. and Schafer, A. L. Administration of Village Schools. Chap. 
XV. Macmillan Co. New York 1920. 

6. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. Inde.x. 

7. National Education Association. Final Report of Committees on Uniform 
Records and Reports. 

8. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. xii. 

9. Strayer and Engelhardt. Record Book for Elementary School Principals. 
C. F. Williams & Son. Albany, N. Y. 1919. 

10. Strayer and Engelhardt. School Record Card Series. Descriptive booklet. 
C. F. Williams & Son. Albany, New York. 

11. Surveys: Atlanta, Baltimore, Butte, St. Paul. 



rU ril.S AND STAFF 



155 



PROBLEM 

The two following table forms arc from the Stra}er-P^ngelhardt F21e- 
mentary Principal's Record Book.' 

Annual Summary of Non-Promotions Distributed by Grades and Causes. Year 19. .-19. 



Causes of Non-Pkomotion 


Kdtn. 


'"G- 


2ndG. 


3rdG. 


4th G. 


5th G. 


«thG. 


7th G. 


8th G. 


Toul 


B G 


T 


% 


BJG 


X|% 


B 





T 


% 


B G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


|G 


T 


% 


B 





T 


% 


B 





T 


% 


1. Personal illness 


















































































2. Late entrance into grade 


















































































3. Irregular attendance because 
of other causes 


















































































4. Mental incapacity 


















































































5. Unfortunate home conditions 


















































































6. Inadequately prepared in 
English for the grade 


















































































7. Transfer from another school 


















































































8. Overcrowded classroom 


















































































9. Lack of interest or other per- 
sonal fault 






















































































































































































































































Total 


_ 








L 


L 




J 






L 




_ 




_ 




_ 


_ 




_ 


_ 


_J 


_ 




_ 
















_ 

















Recapitulation of Failures in Individual Subjects Distributed by Subjects and Years 





19 -19 


19 -19 


I9...._-I9 


19 -19 


19 19- 


19 -19 


19 -19 


19_....-19.... 


9 -19 


9 -19 


Total 


SOBJBCTS 


n 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G, T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


'b^ 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


B 


G 


T 


% 


Reading 


































































■ 
























Laagn«ge 


























































































SpeUine 


























































































Geography 


























































































History 


























































































Civics 


























































































Arithmetic 














































• 












































Writing 


























































































Drawing 


























































































Music 


























































































Physical Culture 


























































































Science 


























































































Hygiene 


























































































Manual Training 


























































































Sen-ing 


























































































Cooking 


























































































Nature Study 








































































































































































































































































































































































Totals 


























_j 














lJ 








u 




J 


J 


u 




u 




J 


u 




u 















, 










QUESTIONS 

Of what value are such records to (a) the superintendent, (b) the super- 
visor, (c) the principal, (d) the teacher? 

Of what value are these records when kept for a period of years? List 
some of the studies which may be made from them. 
What other similar records should be kept in addition to these? 
What changes would you suggest in data included or form of record? 

■ Published by C. F. Williams & Son. Albany, New York. 



IX B. ACCOUNTING— FINANCIAL RECORDS AND 
ACCOUNTS 

I. Development of School Finance in the United States. 

A. Relation to development of public school idea. 

B. Changes in method and means of support. 

1. State participation and regulation. 

2. DifTerence between cities. 

3. Development of the science of finance. 

C. Changes in methods of recording financial statistics. 

1. Diversity of records. 

2. Work toward standardization of records. 
a. By individuals. 

h. By U. S. Bureau of Education. 

c. By National Education Association. 

3. Relation to state and national statistics and reports. 

D. Influence of the relation between the city school system and the city 
government upon records kept. 

II. The Principle of the Budget in School Finance. 

A. The introduction of the budget principle in this country. 

B. Purpose of the budget in relation to: 

I. Money spent. 2. Estimated needs. 3. Program involved. 

C. Content and form of the budget. 

I. Accounting for past> period. 2. Present conditions. 

3. Estimated needs. 

4. Sources of revenue. 5. Program involved. 

D. Preparation of budget. 

I. By whom. 2. When. 

III. Necessary Financial Records of City School Systems. 

A. Elements determining the number and completeness of records. 

B. List of necessary records and accounts. 

C. Characteristics of each of the several financial records. 
I. By whom made and kept. 2. Most desirable form. 
3. Data included in each. 4. Number of copies made. 

D. Classification of financial disbursements. 

1. According to general function. 

2. According to comparable "unit costs." 

3. According to schools, divisions, and special forms of education. 

IV. Supplementary Records of Supplies and Equipment. 
A. Need for complete and continuous inventory of 

1. Furniture. 

2. Instructional equipment and apparatus. 



FINANCIAL RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 1 57 

V. Uses to be Made of School Financial Records. 

A. Publicity. 

I. Ways of using. 2. By whom done. 

B. Self-analysis. 

1. Items usable. 2. By whom done. 

C. Data for study of educational problems — to whom available. 

VI. The Location of Responsibility for and the Necessity of Co- 
operation IN the Making and Use of School Fin\ncial Reports. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Case, C. H. Handbook of Instructions for Recording Disbursements. New 
York State Education Department. Albany, N. Y. 191 7. 

2. Cleveland, F. A. "A State Budget." Municipal Research, February 1915. 

3. Cubberley, E. P. Public School Adminislration. Rev. Ed. Chap. xxv. 

4. Button, S. T. and Snedden, D. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap. xxix. 

5. Elliott, E. C. Fiscal Aspects of Public Education in American Cities. Table 
of Contents. Teachers College. New York 1905. 

6. Engelhardt, N. L. A School Building Program for Cities. 

7. Engelhardt, N. L. Inventory Book. C. F. Williams & Son. Albany, N. Y. 
1919. 

8. Engelhardt, N. L. Score Card for Records and Reports. 

9. Finney, R. L. and Schafer, A. L. Administration of Village Schools. Chap. 

XV. 

10. Gamble, G. C. School Building Costs. In preparation. 

11. Hutchinson, J. H. School Costs and School Accounting. Teachers College. 
New York 1914. 

12. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education. "Budget-School." 

13. National Education Association. Report of Committee of School Finance. 
1912. 

14. Strayer, G. D. City School Expenditures. Teachers College. New York 

1905- 

15. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. xii. 

16. Strayer and Engelhardt. Elementary School Inventory. C. F. Williams & 
Son. Albany, N. Y. 1920. 

17. Strayer and Thorndike. Educational Administration. Part v. 

18. Superintendents' Reports: Newton 19 13, Boston 192 1, Oakland 19 17-18. 

19. Surveys: Butte, Portland, Salt Lake, Cleveland, Gary, Baltimore, Atlanta. 

20. Twente, J. W. Budgetary Procedure for a Local School System. In preparation. 



158 FINANCIAL RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 

PROBLEM 

The following table giving the summary of all expenditures for schools 
(including expenditures from all sources) over a period of years is taken from 
Superintendent F. M. Hunter's report of the Oakland, California, Public 
Schools for 1917-18. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Of what value is such a table? 

2. What additions, omissions, or alterations would you suggest? (Give 
reasons for each suggestion.) 

3. List the other financial records which are necessary in compiling this 
table. Which of these should also appear in the published report? Whv? 



FINANCIAL RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 159 

Summary of All Expenditures for Schools 





1910-11 


1911-12 


1912-13 


1913-14 


Current Expenses 

General Control 

Instruction 


$22,954 

714.013 
72,6c 9 

39,366 

16,497 

1,483 

$866,932 


$22,866 

750,525 

71,9-9 

28,725 

21,^95 

823 


$26,715 

8( 9,518 

70,778 

70,724 

22,555 

2,368 


$34,451 

9 6,077 

84.045 

75,533 

24.754 

2.785 


Operation of Plant 

Maintenance of Plant .... 

Auxiliary Agencies 

Miscellaneous Expenses . . . 


Sub-Total (Expenses) .... 


$^95,943 


$1,002,658 


$1,127,645 


Permanent Improvements from 
Current Funds, Taxes . . . 

Other Payments, mostly for In- 
terest and Redemption of 
Bonds 


$221,789 

131,364 

$1, 22-^.085 


$1-9.354 
2^9,873 


$60, 0^9 
202,284 


$111,735 
187,7^0 






Total Exclusive of Proceeds of 
Bond Sales 


$1,235,170 


$1,265,011 


$1,427, H9 


Spent from Bonded Construc- 
tion F'unds 


$2,140 

$1,222,225 


$637,587 


$<" 93.339 


$857,378 


Grand Total, including Bonds . 


$1,872,757 


$1,958,350 


$2,284,477 


Estimated Population .... 


159,601 


167,401 


175.201 


183,002 














1914 15 


1915-16 


1916-17 


1917-18 


Current Expenses 

General Control 

Instruction 


$41,465 

I. f 99.452 

1^5.235 

132,611 

41.215 

.8,608 


$36,1 19 

1,162,905 

113.556 

59.863 

37.058 

7,419 

$1,416,920 


$42,181 

1,229,2^9 

130,830 

92,593 

34.420 

6.053 


$55,223 
1,442,099 


Operation of Plant 

Maintenance of Plant .... 

Auxiliary Agencies 

Miscellaneous Expenses . . . 


142,505 
37,5C9 
46,376 
24.2.55 


Sub-Total (Expenses) .... 


$1,428,583 


$1,535,326 


^1.747.967 


Permanent Improvements from 
Current Funds, Ta.xes . . . 

Other Payments, mostly for In- 
terest and Redemption of 
Bonds 


^^364. 5 19 

2^9,241 

$2,-82,346 


* 133.9-9 
3 "4. 593 


$266,789 

264,515 
$2,066,631 


$234,660 


Total E.xclusive of Proceeds of 
Bond Sales 


$1,855,442 


51,9^2,627 


Spent from Bonded Construc- 
tion Funds 


$434,420 


$103,157 


$37,619 




Grand Total, including Bonds . 


$2,516,766 


$1,958,599 


$2,104,250 


$1,982,627 


Estimated Population .... 


190,802 


198,602 


206,402 


246,519 



X. PLANT— THE CITY SCHOOL PLANT AND ITS CARE 

I. History and Development of School Housing in the United 
States. 

A. Stages in the development with typical illustrations. 

B. Factors contributing to the development of school buildings. 

1 . Increased activities of school as result of social changes. 

2. Improvement in building methods and materials. 

3. Development of hygienic and recreational standards. 

4. Investigations and studies on school conditions. 

5. Changing degrees of public support for education. 

C. Present school building situation in United States. 

1 . How determined ? 

2. What has been done to meet needs? 

3. What needs to be done: 

a. To improve actual conditions? 

b. To equalize educational opportunities? 

II. The Standardization of City School Buildings. 

A. Conditions showing the need for standardization. 

B. Early attempts at standardization. 

1 . Legislative. 

2. Strayer-Engelhardt standards. 

a. W^hen and how developed. 

b. Application and perfection. 

C. Present detailed standards for city school plant. 

III. The Score Card for City School Building Plants. 

A. The principle of the score card and its advantages. 

B. Determining the relative weighting of points on card. 

C. Technique of using the score card and tabulating the results. 

D. Results of its use in building surveys. 

IV. Methods of Securing Standards in New Buildings. 

A. Extent to which superintendent, staff and board determine what is 
needed. (Checking forms and blanks to assist in this.) 

B. Necessity of securing competent architects. 

1. How notified. 

2. Data given. 
a. Form. 

3. Selection of man or plans. 

4. Fixing responsibility. 



THE CITY PLANT AND ITS CARK l6l 

C. Service of educational advisors. 

1. Need for such service. 

2. Nature of service. 

3. Benefits to be derived. 

V. The Care of the City School Plant. 

A. Upkeep and repair — how best done. 

B. The work of the engineer and janitor. 

I. Importance. 2. Qualifications for. 3. Salary' of. 

4. Supervision of. 5. Aids to accurate and adequate service. 
6. Rules governing work of. 

VI. The School Building as an Index of 

A. Communities' interest in education. 

B. Civic Standards. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Ayres, Williams and Wood. Healthful Schools. Chap. i-x. 

2. Cornell, W. S. Health and Medical Inspection of School Children. Part 11. 
3 Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration. Rev. Ed. Chap, xxiii. 
.4. Donovan, J. School Architecture — Principles and Practices. Macmillan Co. 

New York 192 1. 

5. Dresslar, F. B. American School Houses. U. .S. Bureau of Education Bui. 
No. 5, 1910. 

6. Dresslar, F. B. School Hygiene. Chapter references. 

7. Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, D. Administration of Public Education in the 
United States. Chap, xi and xii. 

8. Engelhardt, N. L. A School Program for Cities. 

9. Strayer and Engelhardt. The Classroom Teacher. Chap. xiv. 

10. Strayer and Engelhardt. Score Card and Standards for City School Buildings. 
Teachers College. New York 1920. 

11. Strayer, Engelhardt & Hart. Schoolhousing Series. C. F. Williams & Son. 
Albany, N. Y. 1920. 

12. Surveys: Butte, Mont.; St. Paul, Minn.; Paterson, N. J.; Greensboro, N. C; 
Baltimore, Md. Chapters on School Plants and .School Building Programs. 



1 62 



THE CITY PLANT AND ITS CARE 



PROBLEM 

Below is given the floor plan of a one-story elementary' school house located 
at Great Bend, Kansas, and designed by Owen & Payson. (Reprinted from 
the American School Board Journal, March (1920). 

Criticise the plan and its provisions in the light of modern building stand- 
ards and justify your criticisms. 

What are the arguments in favor of a one-story school building? What are 
the limitations of such buildings? Indicate in sketch any changes you would 
want to make in this plan. 



C2'> t»' 



Da 



ii'x. 29' 



.1 

- tTrr\ 



1\ 



CI MS K*i 



FuEi. 






Hnotor 



floiLER ?0OM 



nm 



mn 

CltL.S 

-13351. J 



■> 



w>/wpjwt A9»Ke 



Play ffooM 

4Zx 63' 




STAGfc 



m ^ 

in 3* 



C0fff?(OOR 
13' WICE 



CLASS f{r^ 



fF" 






JLASS Ifoofi 



K 



CLAi5 1?K 
22'x 25' 



OASS T?M 

zi'xZi 



tnu- 

tr 



CLA55 Km H 

23'a £9' 






f'LOOR fi/KK 

VA5HlN(3To^( School 
Gr?€Ar Qst-^D, Ka.s. 
Owen anA foLison, HrcUrtoc-t^ 



XI. GROWTH— EDUCATIONAL AND SCHOOL 
BUILDING PROGRAMS 

I. The Place of a Pro(;ram in Educational Administration. 

A. Xeed for a comprehensive program in determining: 
I. Budget. 2. Purchase of land. 

3. Selection of staff. 4. Erection of buildings. 
5. Extending various kinds of educational service. 

B. Elements necessary in determining an educational program. 

1. Limits of support. 

2. Conditions of present staff and equi])mcnt. 

3. Contemplated state or national programs. 

4. Probable future needs of community. 

11. Methods of Formulating an Educational Progra>l 

A. A^'ailable sources for necessary data. 

I. Records over a period of years. 2. Surveys. 
3. Teacher participation. 

B. Various methods of determining the program. 

C. Elements which should be included in program. 

1. Scope of schools. 

2. Desirable readjustments or reorganizations. 

3. New forms of service to be added. 

4. Experiments which communit\- would I)e intercslcd in sui)i)ort- 
ing. 

D. Relation of building program to educational program. 

III. Methods of Determining a School Building Program. 

A. Methods of studying jjopulation tendencies in the cit\-. 

1. Determining the past and expected increases in poi)ulalion. 

2. Density. 

3. Races and nationalit\- distributions. 

4. Geographical distribution within city. 

5. Selection of comparable cities. 

B. Methods of studying school population tendencies. 

1. Number of s'hool age. 

2. Compulsory attendance age. 

3. Relation to adult population. 

C. Determining the trend of population in the city. 

D. Methods of studying present school plants. 

1. Date of erection. 

2. Size and distance from homes. 

3. Score card analysis to determine usable or remediable equipment. 

4. Determination of new provision needed. 



1 64 EDUCATIONAL AND SCHOOL BUILDING PROGRAMS 

E. Adequacy of present sites and new ones possible. 

F. Formulation of new building programs involving 
I. Where buildings are to be located. 2. Size. 
3. When to be constructed. 4. Type of school. 
5. Approximate cost. 

IV. Methods of FINA^XING School Building Programs. 

A. Determination of the city's ability to finance program. 

B. Various methods of financing a building program. 
I. Advantages and disadvantages of each. 

C. Relation of method of financing to the growth of the city. 

V. Publicity and the Success of Educational Programs. 

A. Necessary persons to be reached in publicity campaign. 

B. Methods and campaigns which have been successful. 

C. The probable size and scope of future programs. 

D. The superintendent — -the staff — publicity — and the public. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Babson, R. W. Bonds and Stocks. Babson Institute. Wellesley Hills, Mass. 
1919. 

2. Chamberlain, L. The Principles of Bond Investments. Chap, xvi-xix. 
Henry Holt & Co. 7th Edition. New York 19 17. 

3. Engelhardt, N. L. A School Building Program for Cities. (Good bibliog- 
raphy.) 

4. Fowlkes, J. G. School Bonds. In preparation. 

5. Strayer and Engelhardt. Score Card and Standards for City School Buildings. 

6. Surveys: Amsterdam. N. Y.; Portland, Ore.; Salt Lake, Utah; Grand Rapids, 
Mich.; Hackensack, N. J.; Atlanta, Ga.; Baltimore, Md.; Great Neck, N. Y.; 
St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, Neb.; Paterson, N. J.; Framingham, Mass.; Brook- 
line, Mass.; Greensboro, N. C; Rockford, 111.; Delaware Building Survey. 



EDUCATIONAL AND SCHOOL BUILDLNG PROGRAMS 



165 



PROBLEM 1 

Many sets of facts, studied in relation to each other, are necessary in the 
final determination of a school building program. On the basis of the following 
incomplete data about a certain manufacturing city in the Middle Atlantic 
States, what tentative recommendations would you be able to make relative 
to school buildings to be erected? Write out your recommendations as to 
(i) number of buildings, (2) size, (3). elementary, (4) junior high school, (5) 
senior high school, (6) reasons for recommendations, (7) plan of financing and 
(8) methods of publicity: 

The population of the city by decades since 1870 has been as follows: 1870 
—5,426; 1880—9,466; 1890—17,336; 1900—20,929; 1910—31,267; 1920— 
33-524- 





Population 


Population 


Enrollment 


Number of 




Ward 


1910 


1915 


1920 


Classes 


Teachers 


I 


3.678 


3.745 


311 


15 


10 


2 


3-030 


2,848 


618 


25 


16 


3 


3.914 


3.410 


454 


18 


II 


4 


8,224 


9.724 


854 


29 


19 


5 


2,379 


2,450 


479 


18 


12 


6 


4,019 


5.051 


630 


^1 


16 


7 


4.347 


5-007 


519 


24 


14 


8 


1.583 


2,084 


457 


16 


II 


Total 


31,267 


34,319 


4.382 


172 


109 





a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


% 


h 












Possible 




Estimate 




Number 
of Dwel- 
lings Now 

Occupied 


Number 


Average 




Number 


'Average 


of Ex- 


Ward 


of Fami- 
lies Now 
in Dwel- 


Number 
of Fami- 
lies for 


Vacant 

Lots Per 

Ward 


of F"ami- 

lies per 

Ward for 


Number 
of Per- 
sons per 


tension 
of Popu- 
lation on 




lings 


Dwelling 




Vacant 


Family 


Vacant 












Lots 




Lots 


I 


573 


1.059 


1.8 


62 


1 1 1.6 


3.5 


391 


2 


505 


931 


1.8 


47 


84.6 


3-05 


258 


3 


286 


713 


2.4 


35 


84 


4-7 


395 


4 


813 


1.914 


2-3 


1,421 


3.268.3 


5-07 


16,570 


5 


306 


514 


1.6 


199 


318.4 


4-7 


1,496 


6 


805 


947 


i.r 


848 


712.8 


5-3 


3,778 


7 


338 


650 


1.8 


451 


811.8 


7-7 


6,251 


8 


314 


331 


1.05 


391 


410.5 


6.3 


2,586 


Total 


3.947 


7.059 




3,254 


5.531-8 




31,725 



» Found by dividing the population (1913 Census) of each ward by the present number of fami- 
lies in each ward. 

Interpret as follows: 
Item 6 divided by item a — gives item c. 
Item c multiplied by item d — gives item t. 
Item e multiplied by item g — gives item h. 



1 66 EDUCATIONAL AND SCHOOL BUILDING PROGRAMS 

PROBLEM 21 



\^\OL~J> 



I Mile 







QUESTIONS 

Each circle has a three-eighths mile radius and is drawn with an elementar}- 
school as its center. 

1. What does this map show you about the building program for this cit}-? 

2. What recommendations would you make on the basis of this map? 

3. How would you use this map in planning the erection of new buildings in 
this area? What additional facts would you need to know about each 
school in order to use this map intelligently for this purpose? 

' From Baltimore Survey, Vol. I, p. 215.' 



LIBRPIRY OF CONGRESS 



021 274 602 2 



